GIFT  OF 


• 


Ccctcfyers' 
Manual 


(Elementary 
Schools  of 
IDasfymgton 


ISSUED    BY    THE 
DEPARTMENT    OF    PUBLIC     INSTRUCTION 


R.    B. 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 


OLYMPIA,  WASH,: 

C.  W.  GORHAM,  PUBLIC  PRINTER. 

1905. 


NORMAL   SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 
ELLENSBURG,   CHENEY   AND    BELLINGHAM 


TEACHERS'  MANUAL 


FOR  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


OF  THE 


STATE  OF  WASHINGTON 


EDITED  BY  THE 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 


Printed  and  for  sale  by 

c.  W. 


PUBLIC  PRINTER, 

OLYMPIA,  WIS". 
Price,  Postpaid,  30c. 


The  Course  of  Study  is  the  measuring  rod,  or  rule,  which 
is  used  to  determine  at  what  point  in  the  years'  work  in  the 
elementary  course  a  pupil's  work  has  arrived.  It  should  not  be 
used  as  the  Procrustean  bed  on  which  to  stretch  the  work  of  the 
school  in  order  to  secure  uniformity. 

FROM  REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  OF  TWELVE. 


. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  chief  object  of  this  Manual  is  to  unify  and  har- 
monize the  school  work  of  the  state  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  state  constitution,  requiring  "a  general 
and  uniform  system  of  public  schools,"  and  the  laws  of  the 
state. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  this  state  we  have  a 
law  permitting  local  selection  of  text-books.  Heretofore  we 
have  had  state  uniformity.  The  preparation  of  a  new 
Course  of  Study  is  necessitated  by  the  new  conditions. 
The  problem  is  not  an  easy  one.  Under  the  old  system  the 
books  were  first  selected  and  a  Course  of  Study  issued  to  fit 
the  books  adopted.  The  new  law  provides  for :  (!•)  An  out- 
line or  general  course  to  be  adopted  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  (2)  Selection  of  text-books  by  more  than  two 
hundred  separate  boards  of  adoption.  ( 3 )  The  publication 
of  a  Manual  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
In  the  nature  of  things,  this  Manual  must  be  sufficiently 
broad  to  meet  both  the  requirrnents  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  and  the  various  text-books  adopted  by  the  several 
boards. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  suggestions  and  instructions  given 
in  the  Manual  will  prove  helpful,  but  it  is  not  intended  nor 
desired  that  teachers  shall  slavishly  follow  them.  The  in- 
dividuality of  the  teacher  must  be  given  ample  opportunity 
for  development.  Few  radical  innovations  will  be  found  by 
any  one  familiar  with  the  courses  in  other  states.  In  the 
preparation  of  this  Manual  free  use  has  been  made  of  ma- 


INTRODUCTION . 


terial  from  other  Courses  of  Study.  This  general  acknowl- 
edgement will  explain  the  omission  of  quotation  marks  in 
some  parts  of  the  Manual.  It  seemed  to  this  department 
that  it  would  be  the  height  of  folly  not  to  make  use  of  the 
experience  of  our  sister  states.  A  satisfactory  Course  of 
Study  must  be  an  evolution. 

The  Superintendent  wishes  to  acknowledge  specially  the 
invaluable  assistance  given  in  the  preparation  of  this  Manual 
by  President  T.  F.  Kane,  A.  H.  Yoder,  H.  C.  Sampson,  F. 
W.  Eply,  Miss  Cora  Bratton,  B.  W.  Johnson,  Miss  Effie 
Berkman,  J.  H.  Morgan,  D.  R.  Augsburg,  L.  L.  Benbow, 
0.  C.  Whitney,  J.  W.  Shepherd,  J.  A.  Tormey,  T.  A.  Stiger, 
P.  A.  Williams ;  also,  the  authors  of  the  Illinois,  Maine, 
Maryland,  Nevada,  Oregon  and  Indiana  courses. 

R.  B.  BRYAN, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
OLYMPIA,  WASH.,  Sept.  1,  1905. 


READING. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS. 

Reading  is  the  most  wide-reaching  acquisition  made  by  the  child  in 
school.  No  agency  is  capable  of  becoming  so  effective  under  wise 
teaching,  for  at  once  disciplining  and  informing  the  pupil's  mind.  No 
study,  then,  deserves  more  careful  consideration  or  demands  more 
carefully  elaborated  plans  than  this.  For  in  actuality  no  other  study, 
when  unwisely  presented,  more  widely  and  effectively  conduces  to  bad 
mental  habits. 

It  must  begin,  and  at  every  point  proceed,  on  the  basis  of  vigorous, 
genuine  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  child,  and  the  life  of  such  thinking 
is  constant,  clear,  vivid  imaging.  The  reality  and  character  of  such 
imaging,  the  teacher  should  unfailingly  put  to  the  proof  in  some  way — 
by  questioning,  by  requiring  drawing  or  construction,  by  dramatization 
or  other  form  of  expression. 

These  remarks  lead  to  the  following  suggestions: 

(  a  }  The  reading  matter  must  be  chosen  with  wise  discrimination, 
as  to  its  adaptation  to  the  children's  intelligence,  taste  and  effort,  alike 
in  thought,  in  spirit,  in  phraseology. 

( b )  Close  alliance  must  be  kept  between  the  reading  matter  and  the 
children's  active  interest — other  studies,  seasonal  changes,  attractive 
elements  of  environment,  experiences,  etc. — that  is,  if  the  books  contain 
selections  bearing  in  a  clear,  stimulating  way  on  the  current  work  in 
history,  geography  or  science,  or  on  outdoor  phenomena,  such  selections 
should  be  sought  out  and  studied,  where  and  when  the  association  is 
close  and  suggestive.     Material  for  Thanksgiving,  Christmas  and  other 
special  days  may  thus  be  accumulated;  information  on  places  and  people 
may  be  brought  together  when  most  needed.     This  is  meant  to  correct 
the  mechanical  use  of  the  reader,  by  which  the  selections  are  taken  in 
order  with  no  reference  to  bearing  on  strong  general  interests.      ( Read 
d  carefully.) 

(c)  The  material  chosen  for  the  reading  hour  should,  as  a  rule,   be 
from  the  "  literature  of  power  " — writings  that  by  reason  of  their  purity, 
beauty  and  spiritual  strength  have  become  classic. 

( d )  Supplementary  reading  should  be  thought  of  and  treated  not 
simply  as  increasing  the  bulk  of  reading  matter  and  exercise  in   the 
process  of  reading — for  this  may  perfect  mechanical  skill  at  the  expense 
of  the  disposition  and  power  to  image — but  rather  (  a  )  as  enlarging  the 
range  of  selections  for  the  regular  exercise  and  (d)  as  furnishing  a  fund 
from  which  to  draw  in  enlarging  and  enriching  the  various  studies  of 
the  course — history,  geography,  literature,  science.      Material  of  the 


6  *'  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

first  sort  should  be  in  sets  of  books,  sufficient  in  number  to  furnish  each 
one  of  the  class  a  copy  and  like  the  regular  reading  matter,  classic 
literature  as  a  rule.  This  should  work  in  with  the  text-books,  to  give 
specific  selections  where  and  when  needed.  (See£).  The  second  sort 
may  better  be  in  single  books  or  in  smaller  sets  —  books  of  travel,  of 
description  of  industries  and  manufacturing  processes,  of  science,  of 
history  and  biography,  of  good  fiction,  especially  of  historical  fiction. 
These  are  to  be  read  for  information  on  the  topics  in  hand,  either  in 
preparation  for  the  recitation  or  in  the  recitation  on  the  subject  con- 
cerned, pupils  selected  beforehand  reading  to  the  class.  The  power  to 
read  is  thus  applied  to  a  clearly  perceived  end,  with  sharply  defined 
immediative  motive,  and  close  and  strong  association.  This  is  quite 
important,  if  not  essential  to  thought  getting  and  to  organizing  what  is 
got  for  remembrance  and  use. 

(e)  Above  the  primary  grades,  the  assignment  of  work  must  be 
made  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  definite  presentation  of  things  to  be 
accomplished:  (a)  words  to  be  looked  up  for  pronunciation  or  meaning; 
(&}  allusions  to  be  explained;  [c]  questions  of  fact  to  be  verified  by 
observation,  reading,  inquiry,  or  study;  (d]  questions  to  be  thought  of 
and  answered,  bearing  either  on  the  meaning  of  more  subtile  or  difficult 
portions,  or  on  the  motives  of  characters,  where  these  bear  on  the 
general  thought;  (e)  maps  or  diagrams  or  illustrative  drawings  to  be 
examined  or  made,  and  perhaps  placed  on  the  blackboard  by  one 
of  the  class,  for  reference  during  the  reading;  (/)  reviews  of  other 
studies  or  elements  of  the  selection  in  hand,  needed  to  give  the  setting 
or  connection. 

(/)  No  text-book  in  reading,  which  is  not  in  itself  a  literary  whole, 
is  to  be  taken  selection  after  selection,  in  the  order  of  the  book.  But 
rather  the  contents  of  all  the  readers  should  be  analyzed,  and  tabulated 
or  indexed  together,  and  the  selections  assigned  when  and  where  they 
respectively  have  a  clear  and  significant  bearing.  (  See  suggestions  b 
and  of.) 

(g}  The  voice  should  receive  attention  from  the  first,  and  all  proper 
effort  made  to  help  the  child  to  control  and  improve  it  for  expressing 
thought  —  his  own  or  the  author's  thought.  Drills  for  enunciation  and 
articulation  will  be  needed  in  every  grade.  These  are  to  be  given  on 
words  listed  because  so  difficult  as  to  need  special  attention  and  on  words 
on  which  the  children  are  found  to  fail  of  good  pronunciation.  Drill 
should  be  had  on  groups  of  words,  to  master  difficult  combinations  and 
to  secure  smoothness.  In  pronunciation  make  more  of  pitch  of  tone 
than  of  stress  to  indicate  accent.  This  enables  the  child  to  be  very 
deliberate  and  distribute  his  effort  so  as  to  give  each  syllable  its  full 
value.  The  first  few  minutes  of  each  exercise  may  well  be  given  to  a 
vigorous  exercise  along  these  lines,  especially  on  words  occurring  in  the 
immediate  lesson. 

(h]  The  voice  is  the  instrument  of  thought  and  emotion.  Clear, 
sharp  imagination  is  essential  to  either.  This  makes  concrete  presen- 
tation and  motor  expression  important;  hence,  in  every  grade  selections 


READING  — FIRST  YEAR. 


appropriate  should  be  acted  out,   that  is,   be  given    pantomimic  and 
dramatic  representation. 

(  /)  The  grades  have  been  divided  into  four  groups  for  presenting 
these  directions  in  more  detail — First  and  Second,  Third  and  Fourth, 
Fifth  and  Sixth,  and  Seventh  and  Eighth.  The  teacher  is  urged  to 
read  all  these  directions  carefully.  Much  will  be  found  in  common,  and 
yet  the  directions  will  be  found  quite  distinct  and  characteristic  for  the 
several  groups. 

FIRST    YEAR. 

AIMS  IN  THE  READING. 

( a )  To  have  the  children,  from  the  first,  weld  firmly  together  the 
thought  and  the  word  or  the  sentence  by  which  it  is  expressed.     It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  accurate  and  clear  mental  pictures  be  form- 
ed by  the  children  as  they  read.     To  this  end  it  is  imperative  that  the 
reading  material  be  interesting. 

( b )  To  lead  the  children  to  express  the  thought  in  clear,  distinct- 
tone,  adapted  to  express  the  sentiment  or  the  character  represented  as 
speaking,  and  in   easy,   natural,   vivacious  manner, — as  if  they  were 
thoughts,  their  thoughts. 

(c)  To  help  the  children  become  independent  readers   by  giving 
them  such  instruction  and  training  in  the  sounds  of  letters  and  groups 
of  letters  and  in  other  forms  of  word-building  as  will  enable  them   to 
make  out  for  themselves  the  new  words  in  their  lessons. 

SOURCES  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  READING  LESSONS  FOR  BEGINNERS. 

1.  Room  Management. 

2.  Games  and  Plays, 

3.  Literature. 

4.  Nature  Study. 

5.  Objects  and  Pictures. 

METHODS  OF  PRESENTING  THESE  LESSONS— GENERAL. 

The  first  lesson  in  reading  should  be  given  independently  of  any 
book,  and  should  be  presented  in  writing  on  the  blackboard.  In  these 
lessons  the  writing  should  be  large,  clear,  vertical  script,  swiftly 
executed  in  order  not  to  lose  the  interest  and  zest  of  the  thought. 

1.  Room  Management:    After  the  direction  "Stand"  is  given  orally 
to  the  children  at  a  certain  time  each  day  for  a  few  days,  the  teacher, 
instead  of  saying  "Stand,"  writes  the  direction  upon  the  board  and  tells 
the  children  to  do  what  the  chalk  directs.      The  teacher  may  have  to 
tell  what  the  chalk  says  the  first  time  the  word  is  written,  and  perhaps 
several  times.     "Turn,"  "Rise,"  "March,"  uSit"  may  be  taught  in  the 
same  way.     Gradually  let  other  oral  directions  give  place  to  the  written 
form. 

2.  Games:    The  children  learn  to   play   a  game  by  following   the 
spoken  directions  of  the  teacher;    e.  g.>    "Simon  says,    'Thumbs  up;' 
Simon  says,  'Thumbs  down.'  "    After  the  children  can  play  this   well 
from  the  spoken  direction,  the  written  direction  is  substituted. 


6  'TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

first  sort  should  be  in  sets  of  books,  sufficient  in  number  to  furnish  each 
one  of  the  class  a  copy  and  like  the  regular  reading  matter,  classic 
literature  as  a  rule.  This  should  work  in  with  the  text-books,  to  give 
specific  selections  where  and  when  needed.  (See  b}.  The  second  sort 
may  better  be  in  single  books  or  in  smaller  sets  —  books  of  travel,  of 
description  of  industries  and  manufacturing  processes,  of  science,  of 
history  and  biography,  of  good  fiction,  especially  of  historical  fiction. 
These  are  to  be  read  for  information  on  the  topics  in  hand,  either  in 
preparation  for  the  recitation  or  in  the  recitation  on  the  subject  con- 
cerned, pupils  selected  beforehand  reading  to  the  class.  The  power  to 
read  is  thus  applied  to  a  clearly  perceived  end,  with  sharply  defined 
immediative  motive,  and  close  and  strong  association.  This  is  quite 
important,  if  not  essential  to  thought  getting  and  to  organizing  what  is 
got  for  remembrance  and  use. 

(e)  Above  the  primary  grades,  the  assignment  of  work  must  be 
made  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  definite  presentation  of  things  to  be 
accomplished:  (a)  words  to  be  looked  up  for  pronunciation  or  meaning; 
(6)   allusions  to  be  explained;    (c]   questions  of  fact  to  be  verified  by 
observation,  reading,  inquiry,  or  study;  (d]  questions  to  be  thought  of 
and  answered,  bearing  either  on  the  meaning  of  more  subtile  or  difficult 
portions,  or  on  the  motives  of  characters,   where  these  bear  on  the 
general  thought;  (e)  maps  or  diagrams  or  illustrative  drawings  to  be 
examined  or  made,  and  perhaps    placed   on   the    blackboard   by  one 
of  the  class,  for  reference  during  the  reading;    (/)  reviews  of  other 
studies  or  elements  of  the  selection  in  hand,  needed  to  give  the  setting 
or  connection. 

(f)  No  text-book  in  reading,  which  is  not  in  itself  a  literary  whole, 
is  to  be  taken  selection  after  selection,  in  the  order  of  the  book.     But 
rather  the  contents  of  all  the  readers  should  be  analyzed,  and  tabulated 
or  indexed  together,  and  the  selections  assigned  when  and  where  they 
respectively  have  a  clear  and  significant  bearing.     (  See  suggestions  b 
and  d.} 

(g)  The  voice  should  receive  attention  from  the  first,  and  all  proper 
effort  made  to  help  the  child  to  control  and  improve  it  for  expressing 
thought  —  his  own  or  the  author's  thought.     Drills  for  enunciation  and 
articulation  will  be  needed  in  every  grade.     These  are  to  be  given  on 
words  listed  because  so  difficult  as  to  need  special  attention  and  on  words 
on  which  the  children  are  found  to  fail  of  good  pronunciation.     Drill 
should  be  had  on  groups  of  words,  to  master  difficult  combinations  and 
to  secure  smoothness.     In  pronunciation  make  more  of  pitch  of  tone 
than  of  stress  to  indicate  accent.    This  enables  the  child  to  be  very 
deliberate  and  distribute  his  effort  so  as  to  give  each  syllable  its  full 
value.     The  first  few  minutes  of  each  exercise  may  well  be  given  to  a 
vigorous  exercise  along  these  lines,  especially  on  words  occurring  in  the 
immediate  lesson. 

(h]  The  voice  is  the  instrument  of  thought  and  emotion.  Clear, 
sharp  imagination  is  essential  to  either.  This  makes  concrete  presen- 
tation and  motor  expression  important;  hence,  in  every  grade  selections 


READING  — FIRST  YEAR. 


appropriate  should  be  acted  out,   that  is,   be  given    pantomimic  and 
dramatic  representation. 

(  i]  The  grades  have  been  divided  into  four  groups  for  presenting 
these  directions  in  more  detail — First  and  Second,  Third  and  Fourth, 
Fifth  and  Sixth,  and  Seventh  and  Eighth.  The  teacher  is  urged  to 
read  all  these  directions  carefully.  Much  will  be  found  in  common,  and 
yet  the  directions  will  be  found  quite  distinct  and  characteristic  for  the 
several  groups. 

FIRST    YEAR. 

AIMS  IN  THE  READING. 

( a )  To  have  the  children,  from  the  first,  weld  firmly  together  the 
thought  and  the  word  or  the  sentence  by  which  it  is  expressed.     It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  accurate  and  clear  mental  pictures  be  form- 
ed by  the  children  as  they  read.     To  this  end  it  is  imperative  that  the 
reading  material  be  interesting. 

( b )  To  lead  the  children  to  express  the  thought  in  clear,  distinct 
tone,  adapted  to  express  the  sentiment  or  the  character  represented  as 
speaking,  and  in  easy,   natural,   vivacious  manner, — as  if  they   were 
thoughts,  their  thoughts. 

(c)  To  help  the  children  become  independent  readers   by  giving 
them  such  instruction  and  training  in  the  sounds  of  letters  and  groups 
of  letters  and  in  other  forms  of  word-building  as  will  enable  them   to 
make  out  for  themselves  the  new  words  in  their  lessons. 

SOURCES  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  READING  LESSONS  FOR  BEGINNERS. 

1.  Room  Management. 

2.  Games  and  Plays. 

3.  Literature. 

4.  Nature  Study. 

5.  Objects  and  Pictures. 

METHODS  OF  PRESENTING  THESE  LESSONS— GENERAL. 

The  first  lesson  in  reading  should  be  given  independently  of  any 
book,  and  should  be  presented  in  writing  on  the  blackboard.  In  these 
lessons  the  writing  should  be  large,  clear,  vertical  script,  swiftly 
executed  in  order  not  to  lose  the  interest  and  zest  of  the  thought. 

1.  Room  Management:    After  the  direction  "Stand"  is  given  orally 
to  the  children  at  a  certain  time  each  day  for  a  few  days,  the  teacher, 
instead  of  saying  "Stand,"  writes  the  direction  upon  the  board  and  tells 
the  children  to  do  what  the  chalk  directs.      The  teacher  may  have  to 
tell  what  the  chalk  says  the  first  time  the  word  is  written,  and  perhaps 
several  times.     "Turn,"  "Rise,"  "March,"  "Sit"  may  be  taught  in  the 
same  way.     Gradually  let  other  oral  directions  give  place  to  the  written 
form. 

2.  Games:    The  children  learn  to   play   a  game  by  following   the 
spoken  directions  of  the  teacher;    e.  g.t    "Simon  says,    'Thumbs  up;' 
Simon  says,  'Thumbs  down.'  "    After  the  children  can  play  this   well 
from  the  spoken  direction,  the  written  direction  is  substituted. 


3  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

In  the  color  game,  the  teacher,  holding  up  different  colored  ribbons, 
one  at  a  time,  asks,  "What  is  the  color?"  The  answers,  white,  blue, 
red,  orange,  brown,  violet,  are  written  and  each  child  places  a  check  by 
the  name  of  the  color  he  wishes  to  wear.  When  all  are  named,  the 
game  begins.  The  children  stand  in  a  row,  each  wearing  a  bow  of  the 
color  chosen,  while  the  teacher  bounces  a  ball  on  the  floor,  calling, 
"red,"  "blue,"  or  "yellow."  The  child  wearing  the  color  called  for 
catches  the  ball,  or  if  he  fails,  gives  up  his  color  and  goes  to  his  seat, 
the  game  continuing  until  all  are  seated.  The  child  remaining  last  on 
the  floor  wins  the  game. 

3.  Literature.  Lessons  based  upon  stories  may  be  dealt  with  in  the 
same  way.  Select  a  familiar  story;  say  to  them,  "Let  us  name  the 
parts  to  be  taken."  As  the  children  name  the  different  characters,  the 
teacher  writes  them  upon  the  board,  "Silverhair,"  "Father  Bear," 
"Mother  Bear,"  "Baby  Bear,"  etc.  Then  the  child  wishing  to  take 
the  part  of  Silverhair  steps  to  the  board  and  draws  a  line  under  the 
word,  at  the  same  time  saying,  "I  wish  to  be  Silverhair."  Another 
child  makes  his  choice  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on  until  all  the  parts 
are  taken.  The  story  is  then  acted. 

Some  stories  may  be  recalled  by  the  children  under  the  teacher's 
unobtrusive  guidance  in  brief  sentences,  giving  the  strong  simple  lines 
of  the  story.  It  is  of  importance  that  the  children  feel  that  these 
sentences  are  theirs,  the  story  of  their  telling.  In  this  work  abundant 
opportunity  will  offer  to  recall  the  livlier  and  more  valuable  phraseology 
of  the  classic  used  and  work  it  into  the  children's  vocabulary,  to  a  large 
extent.  If  the  teacher  can  command  the  use  of  a  hektograph  or 
mimeograph,  sets  of  papers  may  be  made,  and  used  in  the  class.  Some 
times  the  children  should  be  given  each  a  copy  to  take  home  to  read  to 
mama;  or,  if  successive  sections  are  used,  the  several  sheets  may  be 
made  into  books  containing  the  whole  story. 

Nature  Study.  When  based  upon  the  Nature  Study  the  teacher  may 
write,  for  example,  the  names  of  the  spring  flowers  in  blossom  at  the 
time  of  writing,  the  children  giving  the  names,  and  reading  the  lists 
later.  Daily  observations  of  the  weather  may  be  used  as  a  reading 
lesson;  as, 

1.  It  is  cold  this  morning. 

2.  I  saw  frost. 

3.  I  saw  ice,  too. 

4.  Winter  is  coming. 

5.  Do  you  like  winter? 

6.  I  do. 

7.  Hurrah  for  the  winterl 

Or  the  teacher  writes  guessing  games  upon  the  board,  e.  g.i 
I  am  not  large.    I  have  four  legs.     I  have  a  fur  coat. 
I  have  short  ears.     I  have  sharp  eyes.     I  have  a  bushy  tail. 
I  run  up  trees.    I  eat  nuts,     What  am  I? 

It  is  well  after  having  much  board  work,  that' the  children  should 
have  printed  lessons  on  large  sheets  of  manilla  paper  or  card-board 


READING  — FIRST  YEAR. 


before  beginning  the  use  of  the  books.  Small  printing  outfits  are  sold 
cheap  now — from  $1.50  up — so  that  every  school  can  afford  one.  The 
first  charts  should  be  the  reproduction  in  print  of  lessons  already 
familiar  in  script.  If  the  children  do  not  recognize  the  word  in  print, 
refer  to  its  written  form  on  the  board. 

NOTE.— For  some  time  the  lessons  in  print  contain  only  such  words  as  are  familiar 
to  the  children  in  script. 

5.  Objects  and  Pictures:  A  supply  of  objects  and  pictures  furnish 
material  for  many  delightful  and  profitable  reading  lessons;  such  a 
collection  is  particularly  useful  in  teaching  children  who  do  not  speak 
English. 

The  first  lessons  are  not  truly  reading  lessons,  but  are  language 
exercises  in  which  the  toys  are  named  over  and  over  again  by  the 
teacher,  imitated  by  the  pupils.  As  soon  as  the  children  can  name  any 
one  of  the  articles  as  the  teacher  selects  it  from  the  rest,  then  the  word 
is  placed  upon  the  board'.  Then  more  conversation  takes  place; 
directions  are  given,  as,  "Roll  the  ball,"  "Bring  me  the  cup,"  "Put 
the  cup  on  the  chair,"  etc.  As  soon  as  the  spoken  direction  is  under- 
stood, it  is  written  upon  the  board. 

Suggestions  in  General:  In  reading  from  the  board  and  in  the  early 
reading  from  books,  the  children  look  thru  a  sentence  (or  paragraph  ) 
and  know  what  it  says  before  they  try  to  give  it  to  others;  in  this  way 
merely  pronouncing  words  in  place  of  reading  is  avoided.  The  children 
are  taught  from  the  first  not  to  attempt  to  read  aloud  what  is  not 
perfectly  clear  to  them.  Encourage  them  to  be  free  to  ask  what  a  word 
or  sentence  means  before  they  are  willing  to  read  it  aloud. 

In  planning  the  lessons  for  the  board,  the  teacher  has  before  her  a 
list  of  the  words  which  the  children  will  meet  in  the  fore  part  of  their 
first  readers.  Wherever  these  words  can  be  used  well,  without  in  any 
way  detracting  from  the  interest  in  a  game,  they  are  used,  but  many 
words  not  in  that  list  will  also  be  used.  These  are  all  common  words, 
however,  which  the  children  will  soon  find  in  their  reading. 

As  an  aid  in  getting  a  new  word,  the  children  should  be  taught  to 
look  at  the  word  in  its  setting  in  the  sentence;  e.  g.,  in  the  sentence, 
"The  squirrel  lives  in  a  hollow  tree,"  the  word  "hollow"  is  not  known. 
When  they  come  to  this  word  they  will  not  attack  it  at  once,  but  will 
look  forward  to  the  end  of  the  sentence.  They  will  discover  that  the 
new  word,  in  all  probability,  tells  what  kind  of  a  tree  the  squirrel  lives 
in.  Knowing  the  kind  of  trees  squirrels  choose,  they  will  in  most  cases 
give  the  word  without  more  study.  The  teacher  should  write  all  words 
upon  the  board  that  have  not  been  instantly  recognized  by  the  pupils  in 
reading.  At  the  close  of  the  lesson  two  or  three  minutes  may  be  given 
to  drill  on  this  list,  conducted  in  a  lively,  enthusiastic  manner. 

FIRST  THREE  MONTHS. 

This  is  an  important  period  in  the  child's  experience;  impressions 
made  here  are  not  easily  effaced.  The  teacher  should  plan  the  work 
carefully  and  present  it  with  zest.  A  great  desire  on  the  part  of  the 


10  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

child  to  learn  to  read  will  be  of  immense  help  to  him  in  mastering  the 
mechanics  of  reading.  If  this  desire  does  not  exist,  the  teacher  can 
arouse  it,  but  not  thru  uninteresting  material,  presented  in  a  half- 
hearted way,  is  this  desirable  state  of  mind  awakened  or  maintained. 

The  work  for  the  first  six  or  eight,  and  with  some  classes,  ten 
weeks,  the  reading  should  be  from  the  board.  Then  a  primer  may  be 
used,  the  teacher  first  putting  the  lessons  on  the  board,  line  by  line, 
and  the  children  finding  the  same  line  in  the  book  and  telling  what  it 
says.  This  putting  the  lesson  on  the  board  first  should  be  continued 
only  as  long  as  the  children  actually  need  that  help. 

As  soon  as  the  lessons  begin  to  be  difficult,  the  book  in  use  should  be 
put  aside  and  another  one  begun,  reading  as  much  as  the  first  third. 

SECOND  THREE  MONTHS. 

In  these  three  months  two  primers  may  be  completed,  besides  many 
lessons  from  the  board. 

THIRD  THREE  MONTHS. 

Two  or  three  first  readers  may  be  completed,  taking  first  the  easier 
portions  of  each.  Guard  against  habits  of  stumbling,  repeating  and 
monotonous  reading. 

SECOND    YEAR. 

Text-books— Second  Reader  or  Readers. 

FIRST  THREE  MONTHS. 

Begin  with  a  first  reader;  if  possible,  one  that  has  not  been  read, 
and  read  it  thru  rapidly,  taking  only  three  or  four  weeks  for  its  comple- 
tion. Then  the  first  few  pages  of  a  second  reader  may  be  used,  that 
giving  place  to  another  one,  as  the  work  grows  difficult.  Do  not  allow 
pupils  to  struggle  with  reading  matter  far  beyond  their  depth.  One  lesson 
a  day,  at  least,  should  be  with  material  that  is  easily  read  at  sight. 

NOTE.— A  teacher  who  has  but  a  scanty  supply  of  reading  material  on  hand  can  do 
much  to  till  the  deficiency  by  collecting  from  children's  papers,  school  journals,  etc., 
stories  that  may  be  mounted  on  cardboard,  cut  apart  and  given  to  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  class.  These  may  be  read  in  class  with  much  profit  and  enjoyment. 

SECOND  THREE  MONTHS. 

Work  continued,  following  the  same  plan  in  general  as  for  the  pre- 
vious three  months.  Children  may  make  some  preparation  of  the  lesson 
before  coming  to  the  class,  following  such  suggestive  directions,  as, — 

1.  Read  the  lesson. 

2.  Write  all  the  words  on  paper  that  are  not  known. 

3.  Read  again  ( if  not  too  long  )  and  make  a  list  of  all   words  found 
out  that  were  not  known  at  first. 

4.  Make  list  of  words  beginning  with  m;  list  ending  in  ing,  etc. 

5.  Write  the  names  of  people  and  anirnals  mentioned  in  the  lesson. 

6.  Write  all  the  sentences  that  ask  questions. 

THIRD  THREE   MONTHS. 

Two  second  readers  should  be  completed.  Keep  the  expression  good. 
Give  definite  directions  for  studying  the  lesson  as  suggested  above. 
Encourage  the  reading  of  books  aside  from  the  text-book. 


READING  — THIRD  YEAR.  -Q 

THIRD   YEAR. 
Text-books— Third.  Reader  or  Readers. 

SUITABLE  BOOKS. 

Aesop's  Fables Stickney 

Danish  Fairy  Tales. Anderson 

Robinson  Crusoe McMurray 

Little  Classics 

Fairy  Tales Anderson 

Alice  in  Wonderland Carroll 

Legends  of  the  Red  Children Pratt 

Seven  Little  Sisters  Andrews 

Cat  Tales  and  other  Tales Howliston 

SUITABLE  POEMS. 

Robert  of  Lincoln Bryant 

Hiawatha's  Childhood Longfellow 

The  Lost  Doll TKingsley 

The  First  Snowfall Longfellow 

Seven  Times  One Ingelow 

Three  Little  Bugs Gary 

How  the  Leaves  Come  Down Coolidge 

The  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel Emerson 

Also,  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outline  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 

THIRD  AND  FOURTH  YEARS. 

Suggestions:  In  the  lower  primary  the  necessity  for  careful  drill 
and  preparation  is  recognized,  but  in  the  grades  just  beyond,  the 
teacher  too  frequently  fails  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  child  is  still 
dependent  in  a  degree.  As  a  result  the  reading  is  often  not  as  good  in 
the  third  and  fourth  years  as  in  the  first  and  second,  and  grows  increas- 
ingly poor. 

In  these  upper  primary  and  intermediate  grades  the  child  begins  to 
use  books  for  language,  arithmetic,  and  geography.  Efficiency  in  these 
subjects  depends  upon  ability  to  get  the  thought  from  a  printed  page. 
Thought  getting  is  impossible  without  an  intimate  knowledge  of  words. 
If  the  child  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades  is  not  independent  in  the 
mastery  of  new  words,  he  should  be  given  phonic  drill  daily.  Do  much 
work  in  syllabication  in  the  word  drill.  If  the  school  as  a  whole  is  weak 
make  it  a  general  exercise  for  a  few  minutes  daily.  It  is  as  valuable 
for  seventh  as  for  third  grade.  A  word  drill  should  precede  every 
reading  lesson  and  every  word  drill  should  mark  an  increase  in  power 
and  independence.  Write  difficult  or  new  words  on  the  board,  dividing 
them  into  syllables.  Then  write  other  words  containing  the  same 
sounds.  If  the  word  round  is  in  the  lesson,  hold  the  class  responsible 
for  sound,  bound,  hound,  etc.  In  these  grades  the  child  should  be 
taught  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Every  day  part  of  the  reading  prep- 
aration should  be  the  looking  up  of  certain  words  for  pronunciation. 


12  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

The  object  of  oral  reading  is  to  be  heard,  understood  and  felt.  The 
good  teacher  will  keep  this  object  in  mind  and  will  make  the  children 
feel  that  they  read  to  make  others  understand  and  feel  what  is  read. 
To  be  enjoyable,  expression  must  be  natural  and  sympathetic;  articula- 
tion must  be  distinct  and  enunciation  clear.  To  say  to  a  child,  "Read 
as  you  talk,"  is  not  sufficient.  The  natural  speech  may  be  slovenly. 
He  must  be  trained  to  listen  to  his  own  speech.  He  must  be  trained  to 
a  habit  of  clear,  careful  enunciation,  and  a  flexibility  of  tone,  until  he 
is  not  afraid  to  hear  his  own  voice  expressing  the  emotion  necessary  to 
a  proper  interpretation  of  the  reading  in  hand.  Too  often  the  child  is 
told  to  read  louder  when  it  is  meant  that  he  should  read  more  clearly. 
The  result  is  a  high  pitched,  strained,  unnatural  voice,  which  is  a 
degree  worse  than  the  low  muffled  voice  which  comes  through  clenched 
teeth  and  rigid  lips.  Give  daily  exercises  to  break  up  rigidity  of  lips. 
A,  e,  i,  o,  u,  rapidly  pronounced  is  a  good  exercise  for  this.  Vary  the 
exercise  by  rapidly  pronouncing  words  which  require  much  lip  move- 
ment. Drill  on  pronouncing  words  clearly,  especially  words  whose 
endings  are  often  elided.  Practice  in  painting  words;  i.  £.,  pronounce 
deep,  immense,  dreadful,  grand,  splendid,  rushed,  etc..  so  that  the  idea 
of  the  word  is  expressed  by  the  tone.  Do  likewise  with  whole  expres- 
sions. Show  the  difference  between  the  voice  necessary  for  such  matter 
as,  "Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee  jest  and  youthful  jollity," 
and  "Bury  the  great  duke  with  an  empire's  lamentation."  Have 
children  say  in  concert  many  sentences  simply  for  the  voice. 

Should  the  child  in  these  grades  read  haltingly,  employ  the  primary 
device  of  reading  the  sentence  first  silently  and  then  aloud.  He  will  in 
time  come  instinctively  to  read  ahead. 

Fluency  depends  upon  ability  to  recognize  and  pronounce  readily  the 
words  as  seen.  Much  easy  sight  reading  gives  the  child  confidence  in 
his  ability.  Sight  reading  must  not  take  the  place  of  the  regular 
reading  lesson,  however.  The  new  words  add  to  the  child's  vocabulary 
and  his  thought  is  stimulated  by  the  reading  which  is  rather  difficult. 
Colorless  reading  may  be  brightened  by  questions.  Varying  expression 
may  be  obtained  if  thought  is  put  into  the  manner  of  questioning.  John 
went  down  town  yesterday  to  buy  a  new  hat.  The  child  reads  it  with 
about  equal  stress  on  each  word.  Notice  the  different  expression  you 
may  get.  Who  went?  Went  where?  When?  What  for?  What  kind 
of  a  hat?  etc.  In  answering  the  question  the  child  naturally  gets  a 
good,  natural  expression. 

It  seems  a  good  plan  to  read  the  lesson  of  the  previous  day  before 
reading  the  new  one,  since  it  gives  one  more  chance  to  review  the  new 
words  of  that  lesson,  and  prepares  the  class  for  the  new  and  difficult 
reading. 

When  the  children  read  clearly,  fluently  and  feelingly,  the  probabil- 
ities are  that  they  will  enjoy  the  reading  period,  then  the  teacher  has 
it  in  her  hands  to  formulate  a  taste  for  good  literature.  She  can  draw 
the  boys  and  girls  away  from  what  is  worthless  and  demoralizing  by 
creating  a  desire  for  something  that  is  better.  Good  method  in  reading 


READING  — FIFTH  YEAR.  13 

will  do  much.  If  the  children  are  led  to  think  as  they  read,  they  will 
come  in  time  to  care  for  thoughtful  books,  and  the  child  who  is  in  love 
with  good  books  cannot  be  led  far  away  from  what  is  sane  and  right 
in  life. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Reading  for  Fourth   Year — Fourth  Reader  or  Readers. 

SUITABLE  BOOKS. 

Fifty  Famous  Stories Baldwin 

The  Bird's  Christmas  Carol Wiggin 

Lincoln Cravens 

Wonderbook Hawthorne 

Timothy's  Quest Wiggin 

Arabian  Nights Clarke 

Sea  Side  and  Way  Side Wright 

Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children. .  .Andrews 

SUITABLE  POEMS. 

The  Leak  in  the  Dyke Cary 

The  Death  of  the  Old  Year Tennyson 

The  Children's  Hour Longfellow 

Paul  Revere's  Ride Longfellow 

The  Sand  Piper. ...   Thaxter 

The  Nightingale  and  the  Glow  Worm Cowper 

The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamlin Browning 

Barbara  Fritche J.  G.  Holland 

Also,  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outlines  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 

For  directions  and  suggestions  see  Third  Year. 
FIFTH   YEAR. 

Reading  for  Fifth  Year — Fifth  Reader  or  Readers 

SUITABLE  BOOKS. 

Little  Nell Dickens 

At  the  Back  of  the  North  Wind McDonald 

Black  Beauty Sewell 

Stories  of  Colonial  Children Pratt 

Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known Thompson 

Myths  of  Old  Greece Pratt 

Mopsa,  the  Fairy Ingelow 

Stories  from  the  History  of  Rome Beesly 

Stories  of  the  Old  World Church 

Lives  of  the  Hunted Thompson 

SUITABLE  POEMS. 

The  Beggar Lowell 

The  Village  Blacksmith Longfellow 

Seven  Times  One Ingelow 

The  Blue  and  the  Gray Finch 

Also,  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outlines  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 


14  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  YEARS. 

Suggestions :  Many  of  the  suggestions  for  the  first  four  grades  apply 
to  these  higher  grades.  A  new  element  becomes  paramount  here. 
Much  time  is  given  to  reading  as  literature. 

If  the  mechanics  of  reading  have  been  well  taught  in  the  lower 
grades,  children  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  should  be  able  to  pronounce 
at  sight  all  common  words,  using  the  dictionary  for  unfamiliar  words 
only,  and  for  definitions. 

The  assignment  of  the  reading  lesson  should  be  a  matter  of  very 
careful  consideration.  Definite  directions  should  be  given  for  the  study 
period,  always  making  sure  that  the  work  assigned  is  within  the  power 
of  the  child  to  accomplish  within  the  given  period.  Correlate  history 
and  literature  as  much  as  possible.  If  the  class  is  studying  the  revolu- 
tionary period,  Paul  Revere's  Ride  is  pertinent  reading  matter.  Miles 
Standish  is  a  fit  accompaniment  for  the  colonial  period,  as  is  the  day  of 
the  first  snowfall  a  good  time  to  read  "Snow  Bound."  Many  of  the 
beautiful  portions  of  the  reading  matter  should  be  memorized,  and  some 
of  the  most  striking  descriptions 'should  be  vizualized,  i.  e.,  pictures 
drawn,  illustrating  the  scenes. 

If  the  lesson  is  a  poem,  the  following  general  plan  may  be  suggestive: 
The  teacher  should  familiarize  herself  with  the  poems  studied  in  pre- 
vious grades  and  give  the  children  frequent  chance  to  review  them, 
that  the  melody  and  rhythm  may  become  familiar.  With  the  little 
children,  the  poem  is  read  by  the  teacher,  and  little  preparation  or 
word  study  is  necessary.  Above  the  third  grade  a  new  poem  should  be 
given  every  month,  selected  for  some  thought  applicable  to  the  partic- 
ular time. 

The  source  or  story  should  be  given  first,  then  the  poem  as  a  whole. 
Often  the  first  reading  may  be  given  by  the  teacher,  that  the  children 
may  more  readily  get  the  central  thought  and  feeling  of  the  poem.  The 
unknown  words  and  expressions  should  be  studied.  Then  the  poem 
should  be  read  in  class  and  parts  discussed  with  reference  to  the  beauty 
of  meaning.  Questions  may  be  written  on  the  board  to  help  the  pupils 
to  a  deeper  appreciation.  Let  the  children  select  the  parts  they  most 
enjoy,  and  memorize  some  of  the  more  beautiful  portions.  If  the  poem 
is  one  which  tells  a  story,  the  children  should  write  in  their  own 
language  what  the  poet  has  so  beautifully  expressed.  If  the  writer  is 
one  whose  life  makes  a  good  sketch  use  this  as  another  language 
exercise. 

SPECIFIC  PLAN  FOE  POEM  —  RHOECUS. 

Story  of  the  poem. 
The  thought  of  the  introduction. 

Relate  the  conversation  between  the  Dryad  and  Rhoecus. 
Why  was  Rhoecus  willing  to  accept  a  "  perilous  gift  ?  " 
Describe  Rhoecus's  character. 

What  is  meant  by  "a  faithful  heart,  but  one  that  too  much  in  the 
present  dwelt  ?  " 


READING  — SEVENTH  YEAR.  15 

Explain,  "only  the  soul  hath  power  over  itself." 

What  was  the  cause  of  the  remorse  of  Rhoecus? 

Give  me  your  judgment  of  the  punishment  he  had  to  endure. 

Was  it  too  harsh  ? 

What  kind  of  a  spirit  did  the  Dryad  show? 

Explain,  "I  can  forgive,  etc." 

What  kind  of  blindness  is  meant? 

Under  what  obligation  was  Rhoecus  to  the  Dryad?  (  How  would  a 
young  woman  feel  today  if  a  young  man  treated  her  as  Rhoecus  treated 
the  Dryad?) 

Select  the  nature  descriptions. 

What  part  of  the  poem  do  you  most  enjoy?    Who  is  the  poet? 

Write  five  quotations,  illustrating  three  of  them. 

SIXTH   YEAR. 
Reading  for  Sixth   Year — Sixth  Reader  completed. 

SUITABLE  BOOKS. 

George  Washington Schudder 

Ten  Boys  Who  Lived  on  the  Road  from 

Long  Ago  to  Now Andrews 

Grandfather's  Chair Hawthorne 

Tom  Brown  ;s  School  Days Hughes 

SUITABLE  POEMS. 

The  Building  of  the  Ship Longfellow 

The  Daffodils Wordsworth 

The  First  Snow  Fall Lowell 

The  Bell  of  Atri Longfellow 

The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs Longfellow 

Also*  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outlines  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 

See  suggestions  and  directions  under  Fifth  Year. 

SEVENTH  YEAR. 

Suitable  Material:  Sketch  Book,  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake  (suitable 
for  dramatizing),  Stories  of  King  Arthur's  Court,  Evangeline,  Bur- 
rough's  Birds  and  Bees,  Holmes's  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill, 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  Snowbound,  Great  Stone  Face,  Lamb's 
Tales  of  Shakespeare,  Captains  Courageous. 

Also,  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outlines  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 

Memory  Selections:  The  Gettysburg  Address,  Warren's  Address, 
Lines  to  a  Waterfowl,  The  Heritage,  The  Psalm  of  Life,  Blow  Bugle 
Blow,  The  Last  Leaf,  How  the  Old  Horse  Won  the  Bet,  Death  of  the 
Flowers,  the  Recessional,  Chambered  Nautilus,  Old  Ironsides. 


16  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

The  general  purpose  of  reading  in  these  grades  is  to  create  a  keen 
appreciation  for  good  literature  and  to  strengthen  individuality  through 
the  oral  expression  of  that  appreciation. 

1.  The  Physical  Side  oj  Reading.     Since  voice  and  speech  defects  in- 
terfere with  good  oral  expression,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  correct 
them.     The  most  common  of  these  are: 

(a)    A  nasal  quality. 
(£)    Huskiness. 
(c)    Lisping. 

(a)  May  be  cured  by  a  few  moments  of  vigorous  drill,  on  words  whose 
correct  utterance  demands  a  great  deal  of  action  of  the  lips;  e.g.,  bound, 
round,  found,  friend,  thrusts,  fists,  posts,  ghosts,  etc. 

( b )  May  be  cured  by  working  with  relaxed  throat  on  metrical  selec- 
tions. 

(c)  May  be  cured  by  noting  carefully  the  position  of  the  tongue  in  the 
formation  of  various  sounds — especially  the  sounds  of  the  letter  s. 

In  all  reading  clear  cut  enunciation  must  be  insisted  upon.  Some 
knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  vocal  organs  should 
be  given  here. 

2.  The  Mental  Side  of  Reading:    Oral  reading  is  thought-getting  and 
thought-giving  from  the  printed  page.    It  becomes  effective  only  as  the 
words  read  become  rich  in  meaning  to  the  reader.     The  printed  word 
must  call  up  a  clear  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  one  reading  and  skillful 
questioning  on  the  teacher's  part,  must  discover  whether  it  is  the  cor- 
rect idea. 

Good  expression  will  be  more  surely  attained  if  certain  specific  things 
are  worked  for.  These  should  be: 

1.  Life  in  Reading:    This  comes  from  a  mental  arousing  that  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  form  of  energy  of  voice.    The  literature  read  should 
be  of  a  character  to  arouse  the  reader  to  a  point  of  self-forgetfulness. 
Here  self-consciousness  is  overcome.     Selections  full  of  interest  must  be 
used,  especially  those  in  which  one  central  ideal  dominates. 

Thrilling  incident,  sprightly  dialogue  and  vivid  description  will  best 
develop  life  in  reading. 

2.  Smoothness  in  Reading:    Here  the  rough  edges  are  worn  off,  and 
the  life  gained  expresses  itself  in  more  beautiful  form. 

Selections'that  appeal  to  the  higher  emotions  will  secure  best  results 
here.  One's  love  for  the  beautiful  in  literature  will  come  to  express 
itself  in  beauty  of  the  voice. 

.  3.  Directness  in  Reading:  This  demands  that  the  one  reading  shall 
in  simple,  direct  earnestness,  talk  to  and  not  at  his  hearers.  This  will 
correct  all  stilted  and  unnatural  reading  and  will  do  much  toward  per- 
fecting enunciation.  The  literature  used  here  should  be  the  drama  or 
some  powerful  appeal.  There  is  nothing  better  than  Shakespeare's 
plays. 

Additional  Suggestions:  If  the  reader  stands  out  before  the  class,  his 
mind  and  those  of  the  listeners  are  stimulated  to  greater  activity.  He 


UNIVERSITY    OF    WASHINGTON,   SEATTLE 
Boys'  Dormitory,  Girls'  Dormitory,  Science  Hall  and  Administration   Building 


READING  — EIGHTH   YEAR.  17 

feels  greater  responsibility,  grows  in  independence  and  unconsciousness 
of  self,  and  is  helped  to  realize  that  oral  reading  is  thought-giving-  to  a 
hearer. 

Students  should  frequently  hear  good  reading  by  the  teacher  or  the 
very  best  reader  in  the  class  in  order  that  the  spirit  of  the  same  may 
leave  its  impression. 

The  teacher  should  keep  several  sets  of  the  penny  classics  for  class 
use,  and  distribute  for  the  following  purpose  only:  Sight  reading,  to 
cultivate  agility  of  mind,  rapid  seizure  of  thought,  and  clear,  intelli- 
gent rendering.  These  may  be  selections  of  minor  importance,  yet 
worth  knowing,  a  single  reading  of  which,  "a  touch  and  go"  acquaint- 
ance with  which,  will  suffice. 

4.  The  Humorous  Side:  Let  the  teacher  of  reading  not  forget  that 
our  boys  and  girls  need  educating  in  humor;  lacking  it,  they  feed  upon 
cheap  smartness  or  questionable  jest  and  their  sense  of  fun  partakes 
mainly  of  the  practical  joking  that  disgraces  so  many  of  higher  educa- 
tional institutions.  So  let  them  read  and  have  read  to  them  selections 
from  Mark  Twain,  Holmes,  Saxe,  Hood,  Stockton,  Eugene  Field,  Arte- 
mus  Ward,  Warner,  and  James  Whitcomb  Riley.  In  term  of  three 
months  two  of  the  longer  poems  suggested  can  be  read  and  studied,  to- 
gether with  many  lines  and  quotations  from  them  memorized,  and  six 
or  seven  of  the  shorter  selections  together  with  three  or  four  of  them 
memorized.  The  memory  work  can  be  a  part  of  the  morning,  or  the 
Friday  afternoon  exercises. 

EIGHTH  YEAR. 

Reading  Selections:  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  and  Other  Poems, 
Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech,  Dickens'  Christmas  Carol,  Burke's  Ameri- 
can Orations,  Rolfe's  Selections  from  English  History  in  Prose  and 
Verse,  Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar,  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice, 
Webster's  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  the  ancient  Mariner,  Man  Without  a 
Country,  the  Bell's,  The  Forest  Hymn,  Thanatopsis,  Psalm  XIX  and  XC. 

Also,  all  supplementary  reading  suggested  in  the  outlines  on  history,  nature 
study,  geography,  civil  government,  etc. 

For  Suggestions,  see  Reading  under  Seventh  Year. 

Suggestions  for  teaching  the  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal:  The  teacher  of 
any  selection  of  literature  must  be  familiar  with  the  selection  she  is  to 
teach;  she  must  know  it  in  its  bearings;  she  must  have  studied  it 
earnestly  and  critically  and  then  have  thought  out  and  planned  how  she 
can  best  present  it  to  the  class,  so  they  can  get  the  most  out  of  it, 
toward  the  development  of  their  characters  in  a  broader  sense;  for  no 
other  study  makes  so  great  an  emotional  appeal  and  so  enhances  the 
worth  and  glory  of  life  and  living  as  reading. 

The  theme  of  this  poem  is  charity — a  universal  theme.  The  founda- 
tion of  charity  is  our  feeling  of  kinship.  What  stronger  bond  than 

—2 


18  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

blood  kinship  has  existed  in  all  the  history  of  mankind!  The  idea 
of  spiritual  kinship  has  grown  out  of  blood  kinship.  Charity  or 
love  is 

"That    thread    of   the   all-sustaining    beauty 
Which   runs  through   all   and  doth  all  unite." 

The  theme  of  Part  I,  except  the  last  stanza,  is  selfishness,  un 
conscious  selfishness  under  the  guise  of  a  noble  deed.  Note  the 
strong  contrast.  His  own  life  was  so  bright,  his  heart  could  not 
be  opened  to  the  leper,  sorrow  and  reverses  must  touch  him  and 
melt  his  selfishness.  Unlike  the  bird,  there  was  no  song  of  sym- 
pathy in  the  heart  of  Sir  Launfal,  and  like  the  castle  he  rebuffed 
the  sunshine  and  the  gloom  apart,  Sir  Launfal  gives  alms  only, — the 
gift  of  true  charity  must  come  from  the  heart.  The  Knight  rode 
to  do  a  noble  deed  but  he  could  have  found  the  Holy  Grail  at  the 
castle  gate  had  his  heart  gone  with  the  gift.  He  was  seeking  the 
husk  instead  of  the  grain.  The  castle  is  the  embodiment  of  Laun- 
fal and  selfishness.  It,  too,  was  beseiged  by  the  summer,  but  lay 
like  an  outpost  of  winter  dull  and  gray. 

In  Part  II  we  have  the  inner  beauty  of  life  set  over  against  the 
external  form.  It  requires  the  chilling  influence  of  winter  to 
awaken  the  soul  of  Sir  Launfal  to  the  realities  of  life  to  enable 
him  to  recognize  his  kinship  to  the  leper. 

The  description  of  the  little  brook  is  as  delightful  as  the  June 
day,  and  pictures  Sir  LaunfaPs  present  life.  The  reader  feels  the 
joy  of  the  fullness  of  the  inner  life  independent  of  the  external 
circumstances.  If  your  pupils  fail  to  see  the  universal  truths 
here  taught  as  good  today  as  in  the  time  of  knighthood  and  as  ap- 
plicable to  one  individual  as  to  another — they  have  lost  the  best 
in  the  poem. 

Do  not  let  the  class  leave  the  poem  until  they  have  stored  their 
minds  with  the  beautiful  quotations.  The  memory  of  the  June 
day  description  will  bless  and  brighten  and  uplift  them  in  after 
life. 

OUTLINE. 

1.  Tell    story  of   poem. 

2.  Look  up   source  of  poem  in   old  legends;   read   something   of 
mediaeval  life;  read  accounts  of  the  Crusades,  of  Richard,  the  Lion 
Hearted;  read  Arthurian  legends  and  Tennyson's   Sir  Galahad. 

3.  What  is  the  connection  in  thought  between  the  prelude  and 
the  rest  of  the  poem?     Apply  to  our  growth  of  character  the  line 
in  which  the  music   is   described   as   "beginning   doubtfully   and   far 
away  until  nearer  grows  the  theme."     What  connection  do  you  see 
between  this  and   Sir  Launfal's   youthful   mistakes   in   feeling  after 
the   right   way   until   he   comes   to   a   better  understanding   of   life's 
purpose   in   later   life? 

4.  Compare  the  first  two  lines  of  the  second  stanza  with  Words- 
worth's Ode  to  Immortality.     Does  Lowell  agree  with  Wordsworth? 

5.  Name  the  things   in   nature   that   the   poet   mentions   in   the 
second  stanza  as  inspiring  us  to  better  lives  and  what  does  he  say 
is  the  effect  on  each  of  us? 


READING  — EIGHTH  YEAR.  19 


6.  Explain  meaning:  of  the  following  expressions:     "We   Sinais 
climb,"    "At    the    Devil's    booth    are    all    things    sold."      And    what 
things  in  life  would  you  call   "dross"  and  what  "gold,"  and  "bub- 
bles,"  and   "cap  and   bells"? 

7.  What  sounds  of  nature  are  spoken -of  in  the  fourth  stanza? 
What  colors?     What  motion  words  in  stanza  5? 

PART    I. 

1.  What   lines    in   the    stanza    describing    the    castle    show    that 
Sir   Launfal   had   lived   such   a   life  that   he  would   not   have  much 
sympathy  with  a  ragged,   loathsome  leper? 

2.  In  our  youth  we  expect  only  happiness  and  avoid  the  sight 
of   sorrow.     How   does   Sir   Launfal    show   this   trait? 

3.  Underline  the  words  in   stanza  6  of   Part  I   that   should  be 
emphasized   and   tell   why. 

4.  What    is   "The   thread    of   all    sustaining    Beauty?" 

PRELUDE    TO    PART    II. 

1.  Mention   all    words    in   the   first   stanza   that   are   descriptive 
of  winter.     In  the   same   stanza,   write   out   all   architectural   terms 
and  show  how  they  apply  to  the  freezing  over  of  a  stream. 

2.  Mark  the  fine  figures  descriptive  of  an  open  fire  in  stanza  3. 

3.  Is  any  special  wanderer  meant  in  the  second  line  of  stanza 
5?     Who? 

PART    II. 

1.  Point  out  all  figurative  expressions  in  stanza  1   and  explain 
their  meaning. 

2.  How  does  the  removal  of  the  cross  from  Sir  Launfal's  sur- 
coat  show  change  in  his  character? 

3.  Judging  from  stanza  3,  where  has  Sir  Launfal  been  in  search 
of  the  Holy  Grail? 

4.  With  whom  is  Sir  Launfal  comparing  the  leper  in  stanza  5? 

5.  What  purpose  do  you  think  the  poet  had  in  using  the  word 
"denied"  in  line  5  of  this  stanza? 

6.  What  two  words  are  used  in  stanza  6  to  show  his  change  from 
pride  to  humility? 

7.  What  in  this  stanza  suggests  the  communion   supper? 

8.  What   in   stanza   8   would   make  you   guess   the  leper   is   the 
Christ? 

9.  The    soul   must   climb   upward   by   the   path    of    self-sacrifice 
and  forgetfulness  of   self  to  sympathy  and  helpfulness.     How  does 
this  poem   show  that? 

10.  What  do  you  think  is  the  best  life  lesson  to  be  found  in  this 
poem? 

11.  Which    would   you   choose:    the   beauty   and   vigor   and   joy- 
ousness  of  youth  as  seen  in  this  poem,  or  the  old  man,  decrepit  of 
body,    sad   with   his  weight   of   experience,   but   humble,    sympathetic 
and  useful?     Give  reasons  for  choosing  either  side. 

12.  Was   the   long   unsuccessful    journey   really   unsuccessful? 

13.  Could    he    have    sympathized    with    the    leper    finally    if    he 
had  not   had  the  bitter   experience  he  had?     Was  it   worth   while? 
Give  reasons. 


20  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

14.  Plain  unattractive  duty  near  at  hand  is  typefied  by  what  in  the 
story?    High  desire  to  accomplish  some  great  and  interesting  thing  by 
what? 

15.  Did  the  author  make  you  forget  that  Sir  Launfal   was  only 
dreaming?    How  did  he  do  it? 

16.  Compare  this  story  with  Henry  VanDykes's  "Other  Wise  Man," 
with  Hawthorne's  "Great  Stone  Face,"  with  the  story  of  "The  Widow's 
Mite,"  with  the  parable  of  the  man  who  fell  among  the  thieves  on  the 
road  from  Joppa  to  Jericho. 

17.  Memorize:     Prelude  to  Part  I,  Stanza  6  of  Part  I,    first  three 
stanzas  of  prelude  to  Part  II,  from  line  7  in  stanza  3  of  Part  II,  stanza  8 
of  Part  II. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR   THE  STUDY  OF  SHAKESPEARE'S  JULIUS  CAESAR. 

Before  beginning  the  reading  of  the  play,  the  teachers  and  pupils 
should  come  into  close  sympathy  with  the  Roman  life  at  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar  by  studying  the  manner  of  living,  the  homes,  social  life, 
dress  customs,  and  especially  the  government  of  the  Roman  people  of 
Caesar's  time.  The  physical  locations  must  be  well  understood — draw- 
ings may  be  made  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  of  the  citj7  of  Rome. 

Suggestions:  A  careful  reading  of  "The  Story  of  Caesar,"  and 
"Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar  with  Introduction  and  Notes  Explanatory 
and  Critical,"  and  Lamb's  "Tales  of  Shakespeare,"  would  be  excellent 
preparation.  The  teacher  is  advised  to  read  also,  if  possible,  the 
analysis  of  the  funeral  speeches  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  as  given  in 
Principles  of  Vocal  Expression. 

When  reading  the  play,  try  to  develop  insight  into  the  first 
essentials  of  dramatic  writings;  that  is,  that  they  deal  with  what  men 
do  under  the  stress  of  temptation,  struggle,  or  opportunity.  And  so 
you  can  bring  out  the  difference  of  the  drama  as  compared  with  the 
epic  poem,  or  novel  or  short  story.  After  the  reading  of  the  play  is 
commenced  do  not  give  the  pupils  so  much  reference  work  to  do  as  to 
retard  needlessly  and  lead  to  vexatious  interruptions.  Rather,  if 
necessary,  let  the  teacher  give  the  information  necessary  to  enable  the 
child  to  grasp  the  significance  of  unknown  allusions. 

After  the  play  has  been  read  and  studied  appoint  leaders  from  the 
class  to  prepare  some  scene  or  act  from  the  play  to  be  dramatized  on 
Friday  afternoon.  These  leaders  are  to  choose  the  pupils  from  the  class 
to  take  the  parts  of  the  different  characters;  to  arrange  the  drills  and 
practice,  and  to  become  responsible  for  the  careful  learning  of  the 
different  parts. 

If  the  class  is  large  enough  three  or  four  leaders  may  be  appointed, 
each  being  responsible  for  a  scene. 

In  the  hands  of  a  skillful  teacher  this  creates  great  enthusiasm  and 
interest.  Each  leader  will  take  pride  in  making  the  acting  and  drama- 
tizing of  his  scene  the  best. 

Do  not  leave  the  play  without  having  the  entire  class  commit  to 
memory  the  most  frequently  used  quotations  and  two  or  three  of  the 
orations,  of  which  latter  Mark  Anthony's  should  be  one. 


WRITING.  21 


WRITING. 


Writing1  is  taught  chiefly  for  its  utility.  It  is  used  to  communicate 
knowledge  to  another,  as  well  as  to  preserve  it.  Both  of  these  require 
legibility.  The  rush  of  business  and  the  economy  of  time  demand 
rapidity. 

While  writing  is  not  usually  regarded  as  a  culture  subject,  the  learn- 
ing of  it  may  help  to  strengthen  the  mind.  If  it  is  taught  with  the 
higher  aim  in  mind,  the  lower  end  is  secured  when  the  higher  is  at- 
tained. In  learning  to  write  the  pupil  must  think.  After  much  practice 
he  does  not  think  of  the  writing,  but  of  what  he  expresses  with  the 
writing. 

The  teacher  should  see  that  the  pupil  does  not  practice  bad  forms  in 
writing.  The  longer  one  practices  wrong  forms  the  more  firmly  do  they 
become  fixed. 

See  that  the  pupil  takes  an  easy  position.  See  that  he  is  supplied,  in 
the  first  grade,  with  good  paper  and  a  long  lead  pencil  well  sharpened. 
When  he  begins  to  use  pen  and  ink,  see  that  both  are  good. 

In  writing,  aim  at  uniformity  of  slant  rather  than  any  particular 
degree  of  slant. 

Before  any  one  can  make  the  letter  a  he  must  see  it;  i.  <?.,  he  must 
picture  it  in  his  mind.  The  first  step  in  writing  should  be  to  fix  the 
forms  of  the  letters  in  the  child's  mind.  There  are  many  devices  used 
for  this  purpose.  After  placing  before  the  child  a  perfect  form  he  may 
be  asked  to  make  it  on  his  desk  with  a  string  or  with  pegs  or  with  other 
objects.  The  teacher  may  make  the  letter  with  a  pencil  on  manilla 
paper,  and  with  a  pin  the  pupil  may  make  holes  on  the  line  far  enough 
apart  for  ordinary  stitches  in  sewing.  Then  with  sewing  cotton  of  some 
attractive  color  the  pupil  may  sew  the  letter.  The  point  in  all  this  work 
for  writing  is  that  the  pupil  is  thinking  the  form  of  the  letter.  He  makes 
its  acquaintance,  as  it  were.  He  knows  it  at  sight.  He  has  also  gained 
some  power  in  making  it.  These  letters  should  all  be  large  that  he  may 
get  a  better  idea  of  their  form.  But  to  write  they  must  be  made  with  some 
object  that  will  mark.  In  writing  the  aim  is  to  secure  legibility  and  rapid- 
ity. If  the  pupil  has  "played"  with  these  forms  long-  enough  legibility 
will  come  as  soon  as  his  hand  executes  what  he  sees.  But  it  may  be  slow 
work.  He  may  not  execute  with  ease  and  grace.  So  some  devices  must 
be  used  to  secure  these  elements.  To  help  in  this,  pupils  may  be  asked 
to  make  the  letters  "in  the  air"  by  moving  the  hand,  as  if  making  the 
capital  stem,  for  example.  He  is  greatly  delighted  when  the  teacher  is 
able  to  name  the  form  he  makes.  Blackboard  practice  with  the  free 
whole  arm  movement  is  also  helpful.  Tracing  the  forms  of  letters  made 
on  the  board  or  on  paper  by  the  teacher  is  a  good  device.  The  child 
should  know  the  forms  of  all  the  letters  and  how  to  make  them  at  the 
end  of  the  second  year  at  farthest,  and  the  rest  of  the  drill  can  be  given 
to  an  increase  of  skill  and  rapidity. 


22  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Pupils  should  begin  the  script  form  of  the  letters,  or  words,  at 
once  upon  entering  shool. 

The  writing  should  be  done  on  paper  and  with  long  lead  pencils 
well  sharpened.  By  the  close  of  this  year  pupils  should  be  able  to 
write  sentences  so  that  they  can  be  easily  read.  Pupils  in  the  first 
year  should  be  taught — 

1.  All  the  small  letters, 

2.  The  combination  of  small  letters  in  words   occurring  in   the 

lesson. 

3.  To  write  their  own  names. 

4.  To  make  the  capitals  which  are  used  most  frequently. 

5.  The  proper  height  of  letters,  slant  of  lines  and  the  turn. 

6.  To  copy  rapidly  and  accurately  dictations. 

7.  To  read  writing. 

8.  To  use  Book  No.  1. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

In  the  second  year  pupils  should  review  the  work  of  the  first 
year,  and  should  be  taught — 

1.  The  elements  and  principles  in  small  letters,  single  and  con- 

nected, and  the  capital  letters. 

2.  To  write  their  lessons. 

3.  Make  their  writing  legible,  graceful  and  rapid. 

4.  To  use  book  No.  2. 

THIRD  YEAR.  ^ 

In  the  third  year  place  larger  stress  on  legibility.  Make  frequent 
tests  in  written  work  and  grade  on  legibility.  Keep  the  writing  of 
each  pupil  in  these  tests,  and  make  improvement  the  basis  of  the 
grades.  Introduce  letter-writing.  Use  Copy  Book  No.  3  and  drills 
with  practice  paper. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Copy  Book  No.  4.  See  instructions  in  other  grades.  Use  a 
great  deal  of  practice  paper,  emphasizing  movement  and  legibility. 

FIFTH  YEAR. 
Copy  Book   No.   5.     Observe  directions   in  previous   years. 

SIXTH  YEAR. 

Copy  Book  No.  6.     Observe  directions  in  previous  years. 

In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of  the  report  of  the 
Committee  of  Fifteen,  formal  instruction  in  penmanship  should  be 
discontinued  after  the  sixth  grade. 


SPELLING.  23 


SPELLING* 


"I  tell  you  earnestly,  you  must  get  into  the  habit  of  looking  in- 
tensely at  words,  assuring  yourself  of  their  meaning,  syllable  by 
syllable,  nay,  letter  by  letter.  *  *  * 

"A  well-educated  gentleman  may  not  .know  many  languages,  may 
not  be  able  to  speak  any  but  his  own,  may  have  read  very  few  books; 
but  whatever  language  he  knows,  he  knows  precisely;  whatever  word 
he  pronounces,  he  pronounces  rightly. 

"Let  the  accent  of  words  be  watched,  and  closely;  let  their  mean- 
ing be  watched  more  closely  still." — John  Ruskin. 

The  teaching  of  spelling  has  two  objects:  First.  To  teach  the 
pupil  the  correct  spelling  of  his  own  vocabulary.  Second.  To  make 
the  pupil  familiar  with  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  words  most 
frequently  used  by  well-educated  business  or  professional  men,  to 
add  these  words  in  as  large  a  measure  as  possible  to  the  pupil's 
vocabulary,  and  to  teach  him  their  correct  spelling. 

There  is  a .  wide  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  how  spelling  should 
be  taught.  Shall  we  use  word  lists  prepared  by  the  teacher  or  a 
carefully  graded  speller?  Shall  we  teach  spelling  orally  or  shall 
all  the  words  be  written?  Shall  we  teach  phonics  and  diacritical 
marks?  The  following  suggestions  are  offered  for  the  consideration 
of  teachers: 

1.  Language  has  two  forms,   oral  and  written.     In   both   there 
should   be   systematic   training. 

2.  The  oral  word  appeals  to  the  ear — (sound)    pronunciation. 

3.  The   written    word    appeals   to   the    eye — (form)      letters    in 
proper  order. 

4.  Correct   pronounciation   is    as   important   as    correct   spelling. 
The  large  majority  of  people  talk  more  than   they  write. 

5.  A  word  is  a  sign  of  an  idea.     Put  meaning  and  life  into  the 
spelling  lesson.     Studiously  avoid  the  old-time,  parrot-like,  meaning- 
less, deadening  recitation  which  brought  this  subject  into  disrepute 
in  many  localities. 

6.  Use  such  methods  as  will  lead  pupils  to   form  the  habit  of 
carefully  studying  all  new  words  as  they  come  to  them  in  their  les- 
sons.     Spelling   cannot   be   taught   incidentally.      It   must    have   the 
systematic  attention   of  the  teacher  as   a   separate   subject   and   his 
constant  care  in  all  written  work. 

7.  Whatever  method  is  used,  the  pupils  must  form  the  habit  of 
noting  carefully   every  new  word  and  fixing  its   form  definitely  in 
mind. 

8.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  prevent  rather  than  correct  bad 
spelling.     From  the  lowest  grade  to  the  highest  every  pupil  should 
be  taught  never  to  spell  a  word  when  in  doubt,  but  to  consult  either 


24  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

the  teacher  or  the  dictionary.  The  eye  must  be  trained.  Correct 
spelling  must  become  an  eye  and  muscle  habit.  Constant  drill  in 
writing  the  correct  form  of  a  word  is  invaluable,  but  time  must  not 
be  wasted  in  useless  repetition  of  words  which  the  pupils  know  and 

know  well. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

The  work  in  spelling  for  the  first  year  is  in  connection  with  read- 
ing. During  this  year  the  pupil  will  meet  few  if  any  words,  whose 
meaning  he  does  not  comprehend.  There  should  be  regular  drill  in 
phonics.  Teach  the  consonants  in  this  order:  f,  d,  m,  r,  s  (soft)  ;  h, 
w,  n,  p,  t,  b,  v,  y,  1,  z,  and  s  (hard) ;  k  and  c  (hard)  ;  j  and  g  (hard) ; 
sh,  wh,  ch,  th  (soft  and  hard),  and  g  (hard).  Teach  the  long  and 
short  vowel  sounds.  Arrange  the  words  that  contain  the  same  com- 
bination of  letters  in  groups,  as  fan,  man,  ran.  Teach  the  combination 
of  letters  an;  such  words  as  Dan,  Nan,  pan,  can,  will  then  be  quickly 
recognized.  When  a  number  of  these  combinations  are  known,  the  let- 
ter analysis  will  give  place  to  syllabic  analysis,  and  a  new  word  will 
be  recognized  by  combining  its  syllables. 

This  power  to  master  new  words  should  be  acquired  during  the 
first  year. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

The  principal  work  for  this  year  is  learning  the  new  words  in  the 
second  reader.  Pupils  should  pronounce  these  rapidly  and  correctly 
before  reading.  The  pupil  should  master  these  word  forms  thor- 
oughly. Additional  words  can  be  given  from  other  work.  The  drill 
in  phonics  should  include  diphthongs,  triphthongs  and  the  more  dif- 
ficult consonant  blendings  and  vowel  sounds.  Attention  should  be 
given  to  easy  phonetic  equivalents. 

Dictation  exercises  employing  words  of  the  reading  lesson,  should 
be  given  daily.  Pupils  should  use  pen  and  ink.  Gradually  the  words 
should  be  used  in  new  connections.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to 
make  original  sentences,  illustrating  the  use  and  meaning  of  the 
words  of  their  other  lessons. 

The  syllable  is  the  unit  of  pronounciation  and  careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  division  of  words  into  syllables.  In  this  grade 
pronounciation  of  syllables  in  spelling  is  sometimes  desirable.  Pupils 
should  learn  to  indicate  the  accented  syllable. 

THIRD  AND  FOURTH  YEARS. 

The  third  and  fourth  grades  should  recite  together  in  spelling  in 
those  schools  where  the  total  number  of  recitations  exceeds  twenty. 
Spelling  in  connection,  with  the  regular  reading  lesson  will  be  con- 
tinued in  each  grade  separately. 

In  the  third  grade,  a  spelling  book  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pu- 
pils and  regular  lessons  assigned.  It  is  true  that  the  pupils  may  spend 
too  much  time  in  useless  repetition.  This  results  from  a  misconcep- 
tion of  the  function  of  the  spelling  book.  This  book  is  not  intended 
merely  for  purposes  of  drill.  The  lists  of  words  are  not  columns  of 


SPELLING  — FIFTH   AND   SIXTH  YEARS.  25 

figures  and  are  not  to  be  taught  as  the  multiplication  table  is  taught. 
Every  word  has  a  meaning — most  words  several  meanings.  The  pupil 
has  now  learned  the  form  of  most  of  the  words  familiar  to  him. 
Henceforth  he  must  learn  the  use  and  meaning  of  new  words.  Every 
new  word  should  become  part  of  the  child's  working  vocabulary.  He 
ought  not  only  to  understand  its  meaning,  when  he  sees  it  in  print  or 
when  he  hears  it  used  by  others,  but  he  ought  to  become  so  familiar 
with  it  that  he  can  use  it  intelligently.  Before  the  pupil  is  asked  to 
reproduce  a  word,  he  should  have  its  form  fixed  in  mind  both  through 
the  ear  and  the  eye.  His  very  muscles  should  be  trained  to  reproduce 
it  unconsciously.  To  secure  this  result,  mere  repetition  is  worse  than 
useless.  It  deadens  the  faculties  of  the  child  instead  of  developing 
them.  Disgust  takes  the  place  of  interest.  Study  of  the  use  and 
meanings  of  words,  however,  never  fails  to  secure  the  attention  of 
pupils.  Illustrative  sentences  should  be  given  freely  by  both  teacher 
and  pupils.  Dictation  exercises  are  valuable  if  properly  conducted. 

Make  lists  of  homonyms  (or  homophones).  Study  their  meaning 
and  pronounciation.  Give  dictation  exercises,  using  these  and  similar 
words:  Adds,  adz;  bad,  bade;  be,  bee;  beat,  beet;  blew,  blue;  bail, 
bale;  bowl,  boll;  cent,  scent;  cellar,  seller;  dew,  due;  fair,  fare;  flea, 
flee;  forth,  fourth;  flew,  flue;  him,  hymn;  hole,  whole;  hart,  heart; 
hare,  hair;  heal,  heel;  hoes,  hose;  knead,  ueed;  knew,  new,  gnu;  knot, 
not;  leak,  leek;  limb,  limn;  mail,  male;  mite,  might;  miner,  minor; 
mantle,  mantel;  nose,  knows,  noes;  nay,  neigh;  pain,  pane;  pail,  pale; 
pole,  poll;  rap,  wrap;  ring,  wring;  sun,  son;  slay,  sleigh;  some,  sum; 
sew,  sow,  so,  etc.,  etc.  (See  Illinois  State  Course  of  Study,  or  any 
graded  speller  for  additional  words.) 

The  systematic  study  of  synonyms  and  antonyms  should  be  a  feat- 
ure of  the  work  of  these  grades.  Make  lists  of  words  and  require 
pupils  to  give  words  of  like  or  opposite  meaning.  Be  sure  that  the 
pupils  understand  the  meaning  and  use  of  synonymous  words,  but 
close  discrimination  is  not  possible  in  these  grades. 

"Word  building"  is  an  exceedingly  profitable  as  well  as  interest- 
ing exercise.  Pupils  of  these  grades  will  surprise  many  a  teacher  by 
their  cleverness  in  the  use  of  prefixes  and  suffixes.  The  pupils  should 
understand  the  meaning  of  these  affixes.  Exercises  in  "word  build- 
ing" in  the  third  and  fourth  grades  prepare  the  way  for  word  analy- 
sis in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades.  Study  the  following  affixes:  er, 
less,  ly,  ness,  ous,  dom,  mis,  ness,  en,  ful,  some,  ment,  or  fy.  Note 
changes  of  spelling  due  to  use  of  suffix,  such  as  changes  from  y  to  i, 
(plenty,  plentiful)  ;  the  doubling  of  the  final  consonant,  (rob,  rob- 
ber) ;  dropping  of  the  final  e,  (move,  moving) . 

Diacritical  marking  should  be  mastered  in  these  grades.  Primarily 
and  above  all  else,  study  the  use  and  meaning  of  words. 

FIFTH  AND  SIXTH  YEARS. 

The  fifth  and  sixth  grade  pupils  should  recite  together  in  spelling 
in  all  schools  in  which  there  are  more  than  twenty  classes  daily. 


26  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Before  completing  the  work  of  the  first  four  grades,  a  pupil  should 
have  mastered  the  spelling  of  the  words  in  his  vocabulary;  learned 
the  use  and  meaning  of  many  new  words  from  the  speller;  given  con- 
siderable attention  to  homonyms,  antonyms  and  synonyms;  become 
familiar  with  the  use  of  diacritical  marks.  Heretofore  he  has  relied 
largely  on  the  teacher  for  explanation  and  definition  of  new  words 
with  incidental  use  of  the  dictionary.  He  is  now  mature  enough  to 
depend  more  upon  his  own  resources.  Henceforth  he  should  use  the 
dictionary  systematically  and  intelligently.  Every  pupil  should  have 
a  small  desk  copy,  but  he. should  be  encouraged  to  consult  freely  the 
larger  dictionary  on  the  teacher's  desk.  The  "dictionary  habit"  is 
largely  formed  in  these  grades.  Every  reference  to  a  dictionary 
should  be  made  with  a  view  of  grasping  the  full  significance  of  a  word 
and  never  with  sole  reference  to  preparation  of  a  single  day's  reci- 
tation. Otherwise  the  reference  must  be  made  repeatedly.  The  pu- 
pils should  keep  a  list  of  these  words  and  review  them  from  time  to 
time. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  lesson  from  the  spelling  book,  with  con- 
stant attention  to  the  use  and  meaning  of  every  word,  the  pupils 
should  be  able  to  pronounce  and  spell  all  the  technical  and  difficult 
words  in  other  lessons, — grammar,  arithmetic,  etc.  The  time  to  fix 
a  word  in  memory  is  the  time  when  it  is  first  met. 

Continue  the  study  of  homonyms.  Study  the  pronunciation,  spell- 
ing and  correct  use  of  such  words  as  the  following:  right,  rite,t 
wright,  write;  rough,  ruif;  seam,  seem;  roe,  row;  rowed,  road,  rode; 
root,  route;  soar,  sore;  straight,  strait;  aught,  ought;  aisle,  isle;  air, 
e'er,  heir,  ere;  berry,  bury;  berth,  birth;  core,  corps;  cede,  seed;  none, 
nun;  oar,  ore,  o'er;  ode,  owed;  plain,  plane;  raise,  rays,  raze;  scene, 
seen,  seine;  sole,  soul;  cite,  sight,  site;  cord,  chord;  fain,  fane,  feign; 
capital,  capitol;  currant,  current;  gamble,  gambol;  liar,  lyre,  etc. 
(For  other  words  -see  Illinois  Course  of  Study).  Take  fifteen  or 
twenty  of  these  words  a  month. 

Continue  the  study  of  synonyms,  requiring  pupils  to  note  some  of 
the  more  obvious  shades  of  meaning  between  words  nearly  synony- 
mous. Amongst  others  study  the  following:  fame,  glory,  distinction, 
honor,  notoriety,  reputation;  expense,  cost;  liberty,  emancipation, 
independence;  science,  art,  knowledge;  discover,  invent;  vexation, 
mortification,  chagrin;  idle,  indolent,  lazy.  However,  the  emphasis 
in  these  grades  should  be  placed  upon  finding  words  that  express 
practically  the  same  meaning  and  not  upon  ferreting  out  the  subtler 
distinctions  between  such  words. 

Word  analysis  in  these  grades  should  supplement  "word  building," 
begun  in  the  third  grade.  The  study  of  roots  should  not  be  exten- 
sively undertaken  before  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Take  a 
word,  as  de-scrip-tion.  What  does  the  prefix  mean?  What  does  the 
suffix  mean?  What  does  the  entire  word  mean?  Another  word,  as 
post-pone-ment.  Note  the  prefix  and  the  suffix.  Pupils  should  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  such  prefixes  as  ad,  ambi,  ante,  cata,  circum, 


SPELLING  — SEVENTH   AND  EIGHTH  YEARS.  27 

contra,  ex,  in,  inter,  para,  poly,  post,  pro,  re,  semi,  sine,  sub,  syn, 
ultra,  un,  and  with  such  suffixes  ar,  able,  aceous,  acy,  age,  ance,  ant 
or  ent,  cule,  dome,  ee,  eer,  eace,  eseence,  ette,  ic,  ing,  ism,  kin,  ling, 
ment,  ness,  ory,  tion,  ule,  ure,  y,  hood. 

Write  abbreviations  of  months,  days,  titles  applied  to  persons, 
states,  arithmetical  and  geographical  abbreviations,  etc.;  also  a  list 
of  common  contractions  and  give  words  for  which  they  stand. 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  YEARS. 

The  work  of  these  years  should  be  given  together.  The  regular 
spelling  lessons  and  the  learning  of  technical  or  difficult  words  in  all 
other  lessons  are  to  be  continued.  Waste  no  time  in  trying  to  learn 
to  spell  any  word,  whose  use  and  meaning  are  not  comprehended. 
This  is  fundamental  and  vital.  It  is  recommended  as  part  of  the 
regular  work  of  these  grades  that  the  teacher  require  her  pupils  to 
keep  a  list  of  misspelled  words  in  a  note  book  and  that  these  words 
be  reviewd  from  time  to  time  as  opportunity  offers.  By  this  method 
each  pupil  is  shown  his  own  mistakes;  he  has  a  special  list  of  such 
words  as  he  has  missed;  he  learns  to  spell  through  the  eye;  the 
teacher  ascertains  exactly  the  kind  of  work  being  done  by  each  pupil; 
i!;  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for  teachers  to  use  the  highest  in- 
centive in  their  efforts  to  secure  good  results. 

The  study  of  synonyms  should  be  continued,  giving  increasing  at- 
tention to  the  nicer  distinctions  in  the  use  of  these  words.  Some  one 
has  said  that  there  are  only  two  words  in  the  English  language  that 
are  always  and  exactly  synonymous,  begin  and  commence;  in  other 
words,  commonly  known  as  synonyms,  there  is  a  basis  of  meaning 
common  to  all  words,  but  each  word  has  a  significance  peculiar  to  it- 
self. Elegant  English  demands  exquisite  precision  in  the  choice  of 
words.  Study  such  groups  of  words  as  conceal,  disguise,  dissemble, 
secrete;  content,  satisfied;  clumsy,  awkward,  uncouth;  error,  mistake 
and  blunder;  courage,  bravery,  gallantry,  intrepidity,  fortitude,  hero- 
ism; abstinance,  temperance;  calamity,  disaster,  misfortune,  mishap; 
account,  narrative,  description;  cautious,  wary,  circumspect;  speech, 
address,  oration,  harangue,  declamation;  final,  ultimate,  conclusive; 
beautiful,  pretty,  handsome;  habit,  custom;  education,  instruction; 
economy,  frugality,  parsimony;  order,  command,  direction;  odd,  sin- 
gular, strange,  peculiar,  eccentric,  erratic;  history,  biography, 
memoirs,  etc. 

Word  building  and  word  analysis  should  be  continued  and  com- 
bined with  a  careful  study  of  root  words.  This  work  is  fascinating 
and  profitable.  A  fair  idea  of  Roman  customs  and  conditions  will 
be  secured  by  a  student  who  knows  the  full  significance  of  such  words 
as  conspiracy,  plebeian,  candidate,  subjugate,  submit,  emancipate, 
consul,  civilization,  corporation,  legislate,  tenant,  pedagogue,  etc. 
This  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  roots  should  be  carried  on  systematic- 
ally. Take  one  root  each  week  and  compile  lists  of  words  derived 
therefrom.  Study  both  the  literal  and  metaphorical  meaning.  Note 


28  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

the  force  of  all  affixes.  The  following  roots  are  suggested:  am  (love)  ; 
aim  (year;  ag  (do,  drive) ;  aud  (hear) ;  animus  (mind)  ;  bonus 
(good) ;  bene  (well) ;  cap  (head) ;  earn  (flesh) ;  cap  (take) ;  cor 
^heart) ;  clud  (shut)  ;  cred  (believe) ;  civ  (citizen) ;  corpus  (body) ; 
diet  (say) ;  dignus  (worthy)  ;  due  (lead)  ;  doct  (teach)  ;  fact  (to 
make)  ;  fin  (end) ;  frang  (break)  ;  horn  (man) ;  jac  (throw)  ;  locut 
(speak) ;  man  (hand) ;  mit  (send) ;  nom  (name)  ;  pon  (place)  ;  ped 
(foot)  ;  recr  (rule) ;  script  (write) ;  tract  (draw) ;  temp  (time)  ;  terr 
(earth);  ven  (come);  vert  (turn);  vid  (see).  Greek  roots:  auto 
(self)  ;  chron  (time)  ;  ge  (earth) ;  graph  (write)  ;  log  (speech)  ; 
meter  (measure);  phil  (love);  phon  (sound);  poli  (city). 

Write  lists  of  words  to  illustrate  the  following  rules:  "The  let- 
ters f  and  1,  at  the  end  of  monosyllables  and  standing  immediately 
after  a  single  vowel,  are  generally  doubled."  Note  exceptions:  "A 
consonant  standing  at  the  end  of  a  word  immediately  after  a  diph- 
thong or  double  vowel  is  rarely  doubled."  "E  final  is  silent  when  pre- 
ceded by  another  vowel  in  the  same  syllable."  "C  is  silent  before  k 
in  the  same  syllable."  "Silent  final  e  is  retained  when  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  consonant  is  added."  Note  exceptions. 

Make  lists  of  words  frequently  mispronounced  and  drill  on  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  these  words  once  a  week.  About  ten  lists 
of  twenty-five  words  each  should  be  made  and  used  in  succession.  The 
following  words  are  suggested  for  one  list:  Again,  algebra,  aunt, 
been,  bouquet,  Asia,  address,  exquisite,  courier,  comrade,  deaf,  err, 
poem,  inquiry,  launch,  hearth,  kettle,  extra,  lief,  hostile,  zoology,  ro- 
mance, salmon,  pretty,  patron. 

At  convenient  intervals  during  these  two  years  review  diacritical 
markings;  the  elementary  sounds;  interesting  facts  about  the  his- 
tory of  our  alphabet;  division  of  letters  into  capitals  and  lower  case; 
size  of  letters  used  in  printing;  use  of  hyphen  in  compound  words; 
classification  of  words  on  basis  of  number  of  syllables;  use  of 'silent 
letters. 

In  conclusion  every  teacher  should  remember  that  the  work  in 
spelling  has  in  view  the  attainment  of  three  results: 

1.  Habitually  correct  spelling. 

2.  Correct  pronunciation. 

3.  Correct  use  and  meaning  of  words. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR.  29 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND  GRAMMAR. 


LANGUAGE  LESSONS. 


AIMS. 

First:  To  secure  facility  in  the  correct  use  of  language — oral  or 
written. 

Second:  To  secure  skill  in  the  mechanical  construction  of  writ- 
ten language — spelling,  capitals,  punctuation,  etc. 

METHODS    AND    MATERIALS. 

No  schedule  can  give  the  vocabulary  to  be  acquired  in  each  grade 
nor  determine  the  degree  of  facility  with  which  such  a  vocabulary 
should  be  used. 

It  can  only  be  said  that  as  the  pupil's  stock  of  facts  and  ideas 
grows  through  his  study  of  other  subjects,  so  his  vocabulary  and  the 
ability  to  use  it  in  expressing  these  facts  and  ideas  should  grow 
through  the  language  lessons. 

Further  as  there  is  progression  in  attainment  both  of  knowledge 
and  thought,  so  there  should  be  progression  in  the  character  of  the 
language  exercises.  This  is  shown  in  the  outline  given  later. 

In  teaching  the  use  of  capitals  and  punctuation  marks,  teach  that 
which  the  pupil's  work  demands.  As  a  standard  to  which  the  class  as 
a  whole  should  measure  up,  use  the  following  schedule: 

FIRST  GRADE. 

First  Half -Year:  See  that  all  sentences  copied  are  mechanically 
correct  in  spelling,  the  use  of  capitals  and  punctuation  marks. 

Second  Half -Year:  Continue  copying  sentences.  Teach  pupils 
to  write  their  name,  town,  father's  name  (Mr.),  mother's  name 

(Mrs.),  teacher's  name. 

SECOND  GRADE. 

First  Half -Year:  Use  of  capitals  to  begin  statements,  questions, 
first  word  of  each  line  of  poetry. 

Use  of  period  after  an  abbreviation  and  at  the  close  of  a  state- 
ment. Use  of  interrogation  mark  after  a  question. 

Use  of  common  abbreviations:  Mr.,  Mrs.,  St.  Teach  in  connec- 
tion with  the  number  work  use  of  in.,  ft.,  yd.,  pt.,  qt.,  gal. 

All  common  errors  in  speech  should  have  been  corrected.  Special 
emphasis  may  now  be  laid  on  the  correct  use  of  is  and  are,  was  and 
were. 

Second  Half -Year:  Use  of  capitals  to  begin  names  of  persons, 
initials,  days  of  week,  names  of  months. 

Use  of  exclamation  point. 

Use  of  abbreviations  occurring  jn  the  number  work. 


30  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

First  Half -Year:  Continue  the  drill  on  the  use  of  punctuation 
marks,  capitals,  and  abbreviations  outlined  for  preceding  grades. 

Correct  the  errors  of  speech  most  frequently  made  by  the  class. 

Second  Half -Year:  The  work  of  the  preceding  grades  will  be 
studied  in  a  more  formal  way.  A  pupil  completing  this  grade  should 
use  capitals  correctly  to  begin  all  sentences,  proper  names,  initials, 
names  of  months  and  days  of  week.  He  should  use  a  period  after  an 
abbreviation  and  a  statement,  an  interrogation  mark  after  a  question, 
and  an  exclamation  point  after  an  exclamation.  He  should  be  famil- 
iar with  the  most  used  abbreviations,  Mr.,  Mrs.,  St.,  names  of  months 
and  days  of  week,  and  terms  taught  in  the  number  work.  He  should 
make  no  mistake  in  the  use  of  is  and  are,  was  and  were,  did  and  done, 
saw  and  seen. 

FOURTH  GRADE. 

First  Half -Year:  Follow  the  course  outlined  by  the  elementary 
language  book.  Insist  on  the  correct  use  of  7  and  me  as  subject  and 
object,  and  the  use  of  the  nominative  form  of  the  pronoun  after  is 
and  was. 

In  letter  writing,  drill  on  the  addressing  of  the  envelope,  the 
heading  and  closing  of  the  letter. 

Second  Half -Year:  Continue  the  use  of  the  elementary  language 
book. 

Insist  on  the  correct  use  of  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle 
of  common  verbs:  begin,  come,  do,  eat,  give,  go,  see,  sing.  Use  cor- 
rectly set,  sit,  lay,  lie,  learn,  teach. 

Continue  the  drill  on  the  written  forms  of  letter  writing.  A 
large  percentage  of  pupils  leave  school  at  the  end  of  this  year;  they 
should  be  perfect  in  the  forms  of  letter  writing. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Review  the  language  work  of  preceding  grades.  By  the  aid  of  the 
exercises  given  in  following  outline  train  the  pupil's  imagination, 
enlarge  his  vocabulary,  drill  on  the  choice  of  words,  and  confirm  him 
in  the  right  use  of  capitals,  punctuation  marks,  and  paragraphing. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR. 


31 


OUTLINE. 


Oral  Work. 


Stories. 
Picture  Lessons. 


f  Picture  Lessons. 


Stories. 


Written  Work. 


f  Language-Lesson    Pictures. 
j  Geography  Pictures. 
>  History  Pictures. 

Biography  Pictures. 

Dialogue  Pictures. 

f  For   Reproduction. 
!  For  Combination  of 
Language  Lesson 

and 
Spelling  Lesson. 


Dictation  as  a  Language  Exercise. 

Quotations,  or  Memory  Gems. 

Figurative  Language  Exercises. 

Paraphrasing  Exercises. 

Synonym  Exercises  with  a  Selection  for  Study  in 

Reading. 

Fables  and  their  Application. 
Proverbs  and  their  Application. 
Action  Lessons,  Doing  and  Telling  How. 

THE  SUPPLEMENTARY  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER. 

Some  of  this  work  has  been  compiled  from  sources  of  the  highest 
authority  in  artistic  teaching;  some  has  never  been  presented  before, 
but  all  of  it  is  in  actual  and  satisfactory  use  in  many  of  the  schools 
of  our  State. 

The  text-book  is  only  a  book  of  texts  upon  which  the  teacher  is  to 
build,  by  supplementary  work,  an  ideal  and  properly  developed  series 
of  incidental  results.  Incidental  results  are  most  lasting  in  educa- 
tional work.  The  unconscious  tuition  of  life  and  school  is  the  best. 
The  teacher  whose  ideal  is  highest  and  whose  art  is  most  perfect 
values  least  the  direct  results  of  her  teaching.  A  good  and  suggestive 
text-book  is  very  necessary  for  the  teacher's  orderly,  logical,  and  con- 
secutive presentation  of  any  given  branch  of  study;  but  it  is  the  sup- 
plementary work  in  that  branch  that  gives  tone,  fibre,  and  value  to 
the  developing  educational  processes  of  mind  and  character. 

ORAL    WORK. 

Language  is  used  in  two  ways — orally  and  in  writing.  A  thous- 
and words  are  used  orally  to  one  used  in  writing. 

The  training  of  pupils  in  the  use  of  oral  language  should  begin, 
of  course,  in  the  first  year  grade,  and  should  be  systematic,  progres- 
sive, and  continuous  throughout  all  the  grades  in  our  schools. 

Language  is  an  expression  of  thought;  consequently,  thinking  must 
precede  talking  or  writing. 

1.    STORIES. 

Pupils  will  learn  to  use  language  well  by  using  it  under  such  cir- 
cumstances as  will  most  likely  fix*  the  habit  of  speaking  or  writing 


32  TEACHERS7   MANUAL. 

correctly.  As  they  like  stories,  it  will  be  well  to  adopt  story-telling  as 
one  of  the  devices  for  teaching  language. 

Stories,  however,  should  be  carefully  selected.  With  the  young- 
est pupils,  the  story  should  be  short,  but  it  should  be  attractive.  Some 
fables  and  some  fairy  stories  are  very  useful  with  the  youngest 
pupils.  The  story  should  be  adapted,  of  course,  to  the  age  of  the  pu- 
pil and  to  his  ability  to  comprehend  its  details.  Some  of  the  stories, 
at  least,  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  will  assist  in  the  moral  in- 
struction of  the  pupils.  A  lesson  in  ethics,  conveyed  through  the  me- 
dium of  a  story,  is  more  likely  to  touch  the  sensibilities  of  a  child 
than  the  same  instruction  conveyed  in  any  other  form. 

With  older  pupils,  the  stories  may  be  selected  from  history,  biog- 
raphy, books  of  travel,  etc.;  thus  incidentally  helping  forward  other 
work  of  the  school,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  variety  to  the  lan- 
guage work. 

Assuming  that  proper  selections  have  been  made,  and  that  the 
teacher  has  a  large  and  choice  collection  on  hand,  the  work  may  go  on 
somewhat  as  follows: 

Read  the 'story  to  the  pupils;  or,  better,  tell  it  to  them  in  a  fa- 
miliar way.  Every  teacher  should  cultivate  the  power  of  telling  a 
story  well.  Question  the  pupils  carefully  on  all  its  details  until  they 
are  fully  understood,  as  right  thinking  should  always  precede  talk- 
ing. Then  call  on  the  pupils  to  tell  the  story.  One  pupil  may  make 
a  beginning,  another  carry  it  a  short  stage,  and  a  third  may  take  up 
the  thread  where  it  has  been  dropped. 

In  this  way  the  interest  of  all  can  be  held  throughout  the  exer- 
cise, and  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  story  can  be  secured. 

Criticism  should  be  dealt  out  sparingly.  A  few  pupils  can  en- 
dure severe  criticism,  and  their  errors  in  language  may  be  corrected 
at  once.  Others  are  more  sensitive,  and  criticism  of  their  work  should 
be  made  at  the  close  of  their  recitation.  Most  pupils  need  encourage- 
ment, and  every  honest  effort  should  be  commended. 

These  oral  exercises  should  be  short,  not  exceeding  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  Such  exercises,  however,  should  be  frequent;  if  possible, 
daily,  as  is  done  by  the  grade  teachers  in  large  schools. 

You  need  have  no  apprehensions  about  keeping  up  interest  on  ac- 
count of  telling  and  re-telling  the  stories  many  times  to  the  pupils  in 
the  grade.  An  old  story,  if  good  and  well-chosen,  seems  to  have 
peculiar  and  growing  charms  for  a  child. 

The  same  story  should  not  be  told,  however,  after  the  language 
becomes  formal,  or  "bookish,"  this  being  a  sign  that  the  "danger 
point"  has  been  reached. 

After  a  good  beginning  has  been  made,  one  new  story  of  moderate 
length  for  each  two  or  three  weeks  of  a  school  term  is  all  that  may 
be  needed. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  confine  the  oral  work  to  story- 
telling. The  reading  lesson  furnishes  one  of  the  best  means  for  this 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND   GRAMMAR.  33 

purpose.  If  the  lesson  is  a  new  one,  it  will  be  well  to  require  the 
pupils  to  prepare  it  so  that  a  fair  outline  can  be  given  by  them  be- 
fore the  reading  exercise  begins.  It  is  well,  also,  after  the  reading 
of  each  paragraph  or  stanza,  to  require  some  one  to  give  in  his  own 
words  the  substance  of  the  matter  read.  This  is  not  only  a  good  exer- 
cise in  language,  but  it  compels  each  pupil  to  give  individual  attention 
to  the  reading  lesson  so  that  he  may  gather  the  thought  expressed. 
In  other  words,  reading  becomes  an  exercise  in  which  the  pupils 
learn  to  seek  for  ideas  conveyed  by  words  on  a  printed  page. 

Oral  language  work  should  not  be  confined,  however,  to  the  first 
and  second  grades.  For  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grades,  topical 
recitations  in  geography  and  history  will  give  variety  to  the  lan- 
guage work.  Indeed,  every  recitation  gives  the  teacher  an  opportun- 
ity for  requiring  good  oral  work  in  language. 

The  teacher  must  constantly  hold  in  mind  that  only  clear  and 
well-arranged  thought  can  be  clothed  in  good  language.  If  the  ideas 
of  the  pupil  are  confused  or  incomplete,  the  attempt  to  clothe  ideas  in 
language  will  inevitably  result  in  confusion  or  incompleteness.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  in  geography  or  history,  should  make  sure  that  the 
pupils  have  received  clear  impressions  of  the  subject  under  considera- 
tion before  calling  upon  them  for  what  we  term  a  topical  recitation. 
Let  "question  and  answer"  precede,  under  such  circumstances,  the 
topical  recitation,  until  the  teacher  is  convinced  that  the  pupils  are 
prepared  for  connected  statements. 

2.    PICTURE  LESSONS. 

Every  teacher  should  gather  quite  a  large  stock  of  pictures  suit- 
able for  oral  language  lessons,  for  written  language  lessons,  for  geo- 
graphy, history,  biography,  etc.,  language  work.  These  pictures  may 
be  selected  from  school  periodicals,  book  catalogues,  and  the  numer- 
ous illustrated  papers  or  magazines.  In  this  work  the  pupils  will 
cheerfully  aid  and  bring  to  the  school  many  suitable  pictures,  both 
large  and  small. 

The  proper  plan  is  to  keep  the  smallest  language  pictures  un- 
mounted so  that  they  may  be  pasted  on  the  top  part  of  a  cap  paper 
sheet  when  needed  for  written  work.  The  others  ought  to  be  well 
mounted,  preferably  on  cardboard  or  pasteboard.  This  is  work  which, 
though  tedious  at  the  time,  really  pays,  as  the  pictures  thus  mounted 
will  last  for  years. 

It  is  well  to  have  the  mounted  pictures  numbered  on  the  back  and 
these  numbers  entered  in  a  blank-book,  with  the  title  of  each  picture, 
under  each  proper  division  of  oral  and  written  language  lessons, 
geography,  history,  biography,  etc.,  language  work.  Thus  a  cata- 
logue is  made  and  the  teacher  is  sure  of  his  stock  of  pictures. 

For  oral  work  in  the  first  and  second  grades  one  large  mounted 
picture  should  be  used  for  the  entire  grade  or  division.  For  written 
—3 


34  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

work  in  the  grades  above  these,  each  pupil  may  have  a  picture  or  all 
may  work  from  the  same  picture  found  in  the  geography  or  history. 

The  first  lesson  is  one  of  Description,  in  which  the  imagination  is 
to  have  no  part.  The  perceptive  faculty  is  to  be  trained,  and  the 
question  to  be  answered  is,  "What  do  you  see  in  this  picture?"  or 
"What  does  this  picture  represent?"  They  must  first  be  taught  to 
see,  then  to  express  their  thoughts  in  a  connected  order. 

The  same  pictures  may  now  serve  as  the  basis  for  a  lesson  on 
Narration.  The  pupils  are  asked  to  tell  a  little  story  about  the  peo- 
ple in  the  picture. 

They  are  to  think  of  names  for  the  persons,  etc.,  in  the  picture, 
and  tell  where  they  are  and  what  they  are  doing. 

In  order  to  train  the  younger  pupils,  in  oral  language  work,  into 
habits  of  right  'seeing,  and  to  express  their  thoughts  in  a  connected 
way,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  question  the  seeing  into  them  in 
the  order  of  the  importance  of  the  character  of  individuals  and  ob- 
jects, e.  g., 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  chief  or  most  important  figure  in  this  picture? 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the  lady?     How  is  she  dressed? 

Does  the  picture  show  anyone  else? 

Describe  the  dog,  or  horse,  so  that  I  would  understand  you  even  if 
I  had  not  seen  the  picture. 

What  is  the  scene  represented  by  the  picture,  or,  what  place  is  shown 
us  in  the  picture? 

Shut  your  eyes,  and  see  the  picture  in  your  mind  just  as  you  have 
described  it.  Now  who  is  willing  to  describe  the  picture  to  me, 
without  the  aid  of  any  classmate,  as  a  continued  story?  (Hands. 
If  the  attempt  is  made  cheerfully,  it  will  aid  greatly  in  the  strug- 
gle.) 

B.  WRITTEN  WORK. 

During  the  first  and  second  grades,  the  language  training  should 
be  principally  oral.  When  the  pupil  reaches  the  third  grade,  however, 
he  should  be  able  to  write  with  a  fair  degree  of  skill. 

Assuming  that  the  pupils  of  a  grade  have  this  skill,  the  work  in 
language  may  become  more  varied.  The  oral  exercises  may  be  carried 
on  as  before,  but  should  be  accompanied  by  written  exercises.  The 
time  given  to  language  on  any  one  day,  however,  should  not  be  di- 
vided between  oral  and  written  work. 

When  the  writing  is  finished,  a  few  of  the  slates  or  papers  may 
be  read,  a  few  hints  or  suggestions  may  be  made,  and  such  commen- 
dation given  as  the  results  will  warrant.  A  few  exercises  carefully 
corrected  with  the  grade  will  no  more  toward  eradicating  faults  than 
a  much  larger  number  examined  by  the  teacher  alone. 

This  part  of  the  exercise  should  seldom  continue  longer  than  ten 
minutes,  and  ten  minutes  given  to  such  work  every  day  will  undoubt- 
edly accomplish  more  than  the  hours  usually  given  by  teachers  to 
the  examination  and  correction  of  papers  and  slates. 


LANGUAGE,   COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR.  35 

The  papers  and  slates  should,  however,  always  be  examined  by 
the  teacher,  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  them,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  noting  the  general  faults  and  weakness  of  the  grade, 
and  the  special  faults  and  weakness  of  its  members. 

1.    PICTURE  LESSONS. 

For  written  work,  the  same  general  directions  for  the  use  of  the 
picture  already  given  for  oral  work  should  be  observed.  First,  the 
description,  for  the  training  of  the  perceptive  faculty,  or  the  power 
to  see  and  observe  correctly.  Second,  the  narration,  for  the  train- 
ing of  the  imagination,  and  for  the  power  to  draw  inferences  in  the 
order  of  their  importance. 

(1)  Geography  Pictures. — A  geography  picture  may  be  used  first 
as  a  geography  lesson;  afterwards,  the  geographical  knowledge  may 
form  the  basis  for  the  written  exercise. 

It  is  important  that  the  pupils  be  taught  to  outline  the  order  to 
be  followed  in  the  work.  If  the  picture,  for  example,  be  a  typical 
one  of  life  in  some  country,  the  outline  might  run  somewhat  as 
follows : 

(a)  Situation  of  country. 

(b)  Description  of  country. 

(c)  Inhabitants:    as   to    description,    dress,    occupations,    posses- 
sions, dwellings,  etc. 

(d)  Scene  in  the  picture:   persons,  animals,   etc. 

(2)  History  Pictures. — Pictures   representing  historical   subjects 
are  very  useful  when  used  for  written  work  in  language  lessons.  They 
are  especially  valuable  as  review  lessons.     Pictures  showing  the  cos- 
tumes and  customs  of  the  period  studied,  are  great  aids  in  the  his- 
tory work. 

(3)  Biography   Pictures. — The   teacher   must   collect   every  year 
a  large  stock  of  pictures  suitable  for  biography  language  work.     The 
pupils  may  work  from  large  pictures;  but  for  special  work,  a  small 
picture  pasted  on  the  top  part  of  a  cap  paper  sheet  may  be  used.     The 
biography  language  work  is  especially  useful  in  connection  with  the 
"quotations"  and  other  work  of  the  school  along  the  line  of  good  lit- 
erature and  reading. 

(4)  Dialogue  Pictures. — A  picture  showing  a  number  of  people 
is  a  very  interesting  text  from  which  to  write  a  dialogue.     The  writ- 
ing of  this  style  of  language  work  teaches  the  pupils  to  give  short, 
concise  sentences;  and  it  gives  them  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  the 
conversational  powers.     But  the  chief  aim  is  to  train  the  imagination, 
and  to  develop  dramatic  power. 

The  pupils  are  to  be  taught  the  meaning  of  "Scene"  and  "Charac- 
ters," also  how  to  write  and  arrange  the  conversation.  When  the 
names  of  the  characters  are  given  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  quotation 
marks  before  or  after  the  sentences.  It  would  be  well,  at  first,  for 
the  teacher  to  write  a  short  dialogue  on  the  black-board  showing  the 
desired  arrangement;  this  the  pupils  copy  before  proceeding  to  orig- 
inal work. 

In  this  work,  however,  the  pupils  should  be  finally  trained  to  con- 
struct dialogues  without  the  aid  of  pictures.  The  teacher  should  be- 


34  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

work  in  the  grades  above  these,  each  pupil  may  have  a  picture  or  all 
may  work  from  the  same  picture  found  in  the  geography  or  history. 

The  first  lesson  is  one  of  Description,  in  which  the  imagination  is 
to  have  no  part.  The  perceptive  faculty  is  to  be  trained,  and  the 
question  to  be  answered  is,  "What  do  you  see  in  this  picture?"  or 
"What  does  this  picture  represent?"  They  must  first  be  taught  to 
see,  then  to  express  their  thoughts  in  a  connected  order. 

The  same  pictures  may  now  serve  as  the  basis  for  a  lesson  on 
Narration.  The  pupils  are  asked  to  tell  a  little  story  about  the  peo- 
ple in  the  picture. 

They  are  to  think  of  names  for  the  persons,  etc.,  in  the  picture, 
and  tell  where  they  are  and  what  they  are  doing. 

In  order  to  train  the  younger  pupils,  in  oral  language  work,  into 
habits  of  right  'seeing,  and  to  express  their  thoughts  in  a  connected 
way,  it  will  be-  found  necessary  to  question  the  seeing  into  them  in 
the  order  of  the  importance  of  the  character  of  individuals  and  ob- 
jects, e.  g., 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  chief  or  most  important  figure  in  this  picture? 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the  lady?     How  is  she  dressed? 

Does  the  picture  show  anyone  else? 

Describe  the  dog,  or  horse,  so  that  I  would  understand  you  even  if 
I  had  not  seen  the  picture. 

What  is  the  scene  represented  by  the  picture,  or,  what  place  is  shown 
us  in  the  picture? 

Shut  your  eyes,  and  see  the  picture  in  your  mind  just  as  you  have 
described  it.  Now  who  is  willing  to  describe  the  picture  to  me, 
without  the  aid  of  any  classmate,  as  a  continued  story?  (Hands. 
If  the  attempt  is  made  cheerfully,  it  will  aid  greatly  in  the  strug- 
gle.) 

B.  WRITTEN  WORK. 

During  the  first  and  second  grades,  the  language  training  should 
be  principally  oral.  When  the  pupil  reaches  the  third  grade,  however, 
he  should  be  able  to  write  with  a  fair  degree  of  skill. 

Assuming  that  the  pupils  of  a  grade  have  this  skill,  the  work  in 
language  may  become  more  varied.  The  oral  exercises  may  be  carried 
on  as  before,  but  should  be  accompanied  by  written  exercises.  The 
time  given  to  language  on  any  one  day,  however,  should  not  be  di- 
vided between  oral  and  written  work. 

When  the  writing  is  finished,  a  few  of  the  slates  or  papers  may 
be  read,  a  few  hints  or  suggestions  may  be  made,  and  such  commen- 
dation given  as  the  results  will  warrant.  A  few  exercises  carefully 
corrected  with  the  grade  will  no  more  toward  eradicating  faults  than 
a  much  larger  number  examined  by  the  teacher  alone. 

This  part  of  the  exercise  should  seldom  continue  longer  than  ten 
minutes,  and  ten  minutes  given  to  such  work  every  day  will  undoubt- 
edly accomplish  more  than  the  hours  usually  given  by  teachers  to 
the  examination  and  correction  of  papers  and  slates. 


LANGUAGE,   COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR.  35 

The  papers  and  slates  should,  however,  always  be  examined  by 
the  teacher,  not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  them,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  noting  the  general  faults  and  weakness  of  the  grade, 
and  the  special  faults  and  weakness  of  its  members. 

1.     PICTURE  LESSONS. 

For  written  work,  the  same  general  directions  for  the  use  of  the 
picture  already  given  for  oral  work  should  be  observed.  First,  the 
description,  for  the  training  of  the  perceptive  faculty,  or  the  power 
to  see  and  observe  correctly.  Second,  the  narration,  for  the  train- 
ing of  the  imagination,  and  for  the  power  to  draw  inferences  in  the 
order  of  their  importance. 

(1)  Geography  Pictures. — A  geography  picture  may  be  used  first 
as  a  geography  lesson;  afterwards,  the  geographical  knowledge  may 
form  the  basis  for  the  written  exercise. 

It  is  important  that  the  pupils  be  taught  to  outline  the  order  to 
be  followed  in  the  work.  If  the  picture,  for  example,  be  a  typical 
one  of  life  in  some  country,  the  outline  might  run  somewhat  as 
follows : 

(a)  Situation  of  country. 

(b)  Description  of  country. 

(c)  Inhabitants:    as   to    description,    dress,    occupations,    posses- 
sions, dwellings,  etc. 

(d)  Scene  in  the  picture:   persons,  animals,   etc. 

(2)  History  Pictures. — Pictures   representing  historical   subjects 
are  very  useful  when  used  for  written  work  in  language  lessons.  They 
are  especially  valuable  as  review  lessons.     Pictures  showing  the  cos- 
tumes and  customs  of  the  period  studied,  are  great  aids  in  the  his- 
tory work. 

(3)  Biography   Pictures. — The   teacher  must   collect   every   year 
a  large  stock  of  pictures  suitable  for  biography  language  work.     The 
pupils  may  work  from  large  pictures;  but  for  special  work,  a  small 
picture  pasted  on  the  top  part  of  a  cap  paper  sheet  may  be  used.     The 
biography  language  work  is  especially  useful  in  connection  with  the 
"quotations"  and  other  work  of  the  school  along  the  line  of  good  lit- 
erature and  reading. 

(4)  Dialogue  Pictures. — A  picture  showing  a  number  of  people 
is  a  very  interesting  text  from  which  to  write  a  dialogue.     The  writ- 
ing of  this  style  of  language  work  teaches  the  pupils  to  give  short, 
concise  sentences;  and  it  gives  them  an  opportunity  to  cultivate  the 
conversational  powers.     But  the  chief  aim  is  to  train  the  imagination, 
and  to  develop  dramatic  power. 

The  pupils  are  to  be  taught  the  meaning  of  "Scene"  and  "Charac- 
ters," also  how  to  write  and  arrange  the  conversation.  When  the 
names  of  the  characters  are  given  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  quotation 
marks  before  or  after  the  sentences.  It  would  be  well,  at  first,  for 
the  teacher  to  write  a  short  dialogue  on  the  black-board  showing  the 
desired  arrangement;  this  the  pupils  copy  before  proceeding  to  orig- 
inal work. 

In  this  work,  however,  the  pupils  should  be  finally  trained  to  con- 
struct dialogues  without  the  aid  of  pictures.  The  teacher  should  be- 


36  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

gin  by  assigning  the  scene  and  characters,  and  suggest  the  line  of 
work,  allowing  the  pupils  to  select  a  suitable  title. 

This  is  more  difficult  than  picture  dialogues,  as  the  incidents  or 
plot  are  left  to  the  imagination  of  the  pupils,  aided  only  by  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  teacher.  Stage  directions  may  be  given.  If  a  par- 
ticularly bright  dialogue  is  written,  it  may  be  learned  and  recited  on 
a  Friday  afternoon,  the  author  being  allowed  to  select  those  who 
are  to  take  part. 

In  the  higher  grades,  the  selection  of  title,  scene,  and  characters 
may  be  left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  thus  making  the  work 
original  in  every  detail.  A  teacher  of  long  and  varied  experience  sug- 
gests that  personal  remarks,  or  stories  at  the  expense  of  classmates 
should  be  strictly  forbidden. 

2.     STORIES. 

For  written  work,  the  same  general  direction  already  given  for 
oral  work,  as  to  length  and  character  of  itory,  may  be  observed. 

(1)  Stories  for  Reproduction. — Stories  for  reproduction  should 
be  short,  simple,  and  direct;  otherwise  the  pupils  will  be  unable  to 
grasp  thought  to  express  in  their  own  words. 

Before  reading  the  story  to  the  pupils,  see  that  every  one  is  in 
the  attitude  of  attention.  One  of  the  important  objects  in  view  in 
giving  these  exercises  is  to  train  pupils  in  the  habit  of  attention,  to 
cultivate  the  power  to  hear  what  is  said  as  it  is  said.  Hence  it  is 
better  to  select  something  easily  remembered,  and  to  read  but  once. 

Require  truth-telling  throughout  the  exercise.  The  expression 
may  be  the  pupil's  own,  but  the  thought  must  be  that  of  the  original 
story.  It  is  an  important  thing  to  be  able  to  repeat  a  thing  told  us 
without  altering  its  meaning.  A  helpful  exercise  in  training  pupils 
to  listen  well,  is  that  in  which  the  teacher  reads  a  short  sentence  and 
requores  the  pupil  to  repeat  it  verbatim.  The  sentences  may  be  max- 
ims, proverbs,  lines  of  poetry,  or  be  chosen  from  some  paragraph. 

If  the  pupils  are  not  accustomed  to  these  exercises,  draw  the 
story  from  them  at  first  by  a  series  of  questions.  Commend  those 
who  give  the  entire  thought  without  question.  They  will  soon  be 
able  to  reproduce  the  story  without  such  help. 

With  pupils  in  the  primary  grades,  oral  reproduction  should  come 
before  the  written.  See  that  the  pupils  can  tell  the  story  well  be- 
fore you  ask  them  to  write.  The  written  work  involves  all  that  is 
included  in  the  oral  recitation,  with  the  addition  of  the  mechanical 
execution,  which  demands  care  and  practice.  "Proceed  from  the  sim- 
ple to  the  more  difficult." 

Let  some  of  the  selections  for  written  reproductin  be  in  verse. 
These  should  come  after  practice  in  prose. 

Keep  a  scrap-book  where  you  can  collect  newspaper  items,  anec- 
dotes, etc.,  suited  to  your  language  lessons.  Be  judicious,  however, 
in  selection. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION   AND  GRAMMAR.  37 

It  is  seldom  convenient  for  the  teacher  to  correct  all  the  exercises 
of  the  pupils  though  it  is  well  to  do  it  occasionally.  A  good  plan  is 
to  correct  one  or  two,  with  the  help  of  the  pupils,  illustrating  on  the 
black-board.  The  errors  will  be  found  to  be  in  the  same  line,  so  that 
this  method  is  quite  as  helpful  as  individual  corrections,  while  it 
makes  it  possible  to  have  these  lessons  more  frequently. 

Keep  a  few  main  points  in  view  while  correcting.  Use  of  capi- 
tals, punctuation,  and  the  omission  of  unnecessary  "ands"  come  first. 
If  the  early  criticisms  are  confined  to  these,  they  will  be  more  effect- 
ive than  if  they  cover  more  ground. 

Have  new  or  difficult  words  occurring  in  the  story,  written  on  the 
blackboard  for  reference;  for  it  is  better  for  the  pupils  to  copy  cor- 
rect forms  than  to  invent  incorrect  ones. 

(2)  Stories  for  Combination  of  Language-Lesson  and  Spelling 
Lesson. — In  the  ordinary  written  exercises,  pupils  use  comparatively 
few  words,  and  these  are  the  words  of  their  ordinary  conversation. 
There  are,  however,  many  other  words  that  are  readily  understood 
by  the  pupils  when  they  are  heard  in  conversation  or  seen  in  the 
books  which  they  read.  But  such  words  are  not  sufficiently  familiar 
to  be  used  in  conversation  or  in  written  work. 

The  object  should  be  to  constantly  enlarge  the  spoken  and  writ- 
ten vocabulary  of  the  pupils.  This  can  be  effectively  done  by  exer- 
cises in  stories  constructed  by  the  pupil  upon  the  plan  of  this  com- 
bination work. 

The  teacher  should  write  upon  the  blackboard  a  list  of  words  in 
accord  with  the  nature  of  a  story  and  the  object  set  forth  above. 
The  written  story  must  contain  every  word  in  the  list. 

This  performance,  in  addition  to  the  spelling,  and  enlarging  the 
spelling  and  writing  vocabulary  of  the  pupil,  exercises  such  powers 
of  his  mind  as  imagination,  judgment,  discrimination,  and  taste.  It 
stands  out  in  contrast  with  the  slight  value  to  be  derived  by  the  pu- 
pil in  the  assignment  of  a  topic  to  be  hunted  up  in  books,  when,  after 
reading  himself  full,  he  is  to  sit  down  and  try  to  empty  what  he  has 
gathered  upon  paper.  Such  a  performance  is  simply  a  memory  ef- 
fort to  reproduce  what  he  has  read,  or  else  a  poor  paraphrasing  of 
the  authors  he  has  dipped  into. 

3.    DICTATION. 

The  dictation  exercise  is  one  of  the  most  important  helps  in  teach- 
ing language.  Few  teachers  fully  appreciate  its  value.  Any  kind  of 
training  or  exercise  to  be  valuable  must  key  the  mind  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  tension.  Dictation  exercises,  when  properly  conducted,  will 
serve  this  purpose,  and  should  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the  time 
given  to  written  language  work. 

For  all  grades  the  exercises  should  be  short,  and  for  the  lower 
grades  especially  should  this  be  the  case.  A  good  plan,  when  the  ex- 
ercise embraces  only  thirty  or  forty  words,  is  for  the  teacher  to 
write  it  carefully  upon  the  blackboard  before  school.  Sufficient  time 


38  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

should  be  given  for  the  study  of  this  exercise  by  the  pupils  for  whom 
it  has  been  prepared.  Capital  letters,  spelling,  punctuation-marks, 
etc.,  should  receive  the  attention  which  their  importance  demands. 
Then  the  exercise  on  the  blackboard  is  covered  with  the  draw-curtain, 
and  the  teacher  dictates  it  to  the  pupils  as  they  write  it  upon  their 
slates  or  tablets.  This  done,  the  teacher  uncovers  the  exercise  on 
the  blackboard  that  the  pupils  may  see  it  written  correctly.  Each  one 
examines  his  own  slate  and  reports  his  errors  to  the  teacher,  who 
stands  at  the  blackboard  and  furnishes  whatever  explanation  is  re- 
quired. For  five  or  six  minutes  every  pupil  will  be  interested  in  the 
work,  and  will  be  benefited  in  proportion  to  his  interest.  After  the 
slates  or  tablets  have  been  examined  in  this  way,  the  exercise  on  the 
blackboard  may  be  required  to  be  written  again  from  dictation. 

Another  very  valuable  plan  for  conducting  the  exercise  is  for  the 
teacher  to  read  a  paragraph  from  one  of  the  reading  books  used  in 
the  school,  and  from  a  selection  with  which  the  pupils  are  already  fa- 
miliar. Now  the  teacher  reads  it  a  second  time,  a  sentence  or  a  piece 
of  a  sentence  at  a  time.  The  pupils,  having  slate  and  pencil,  or  pen- 
cil and  tablet,  write  as  the  teacher  dictates.  They  have  been  in- 
structed to  use  their  judgment  in  regard  to  capitals,  punctuation, 
quotations,  etc.  When  the  paragraph  is  thus  dictated,  then  each  pu- 
pil takes  his  book  and  corrects  his  mistakes  from  it. 

Dictation  involves  a  great  deal  in.  exercising  so  many  of  the  pu- 
pils' mental  powers.  The  senses  that  are  brought  into  play  are  hear- 
ing, sight,  the  movement  of  the  hand;  while  attention,  observation, 
memory,  imagination,  judgment,  reason,  and  will  are  all  actively  en- 
gaged. The  hand  is  trained  to  keep  up  with  the  memory  in  expressing 
the  ideas  as  they  flow  through  the  mind,  the  ear  must  catch  each 
sound,  while  the  memory  keeps  them  in  place  ready  for  use  as  the 
fingers  jot  them  down;  the  imagination,  judgment,  and  reason  are  all 
vigorously  at  work  deciding  where  onp  sentence  begins  and  another 
ends,  while  the  will  holds  the  mind  to  the  subject  in  hand. 

Dictation  exercises  show  connected  or  related  sentences,  and  the 
careful  attention  the  pupil  is  obliged  to  give  to  this  class  of  work  be- 
gets in  him  the  very  habit  that  is  so  necessary  to  his  future  progress 
in  written  language.  To  read  to  pupils  a  sentence  or  part  of  a  sen- 
tence at  a  time,  the  writer  must  think  how  he  will  write  it,  and  then 
the  act  of  comparing  his  own  effort  with  the  work  from  which  the 
extract  was  read,  forces  him  into  the  habit  of  seeing  the  logical  con- 
nection of  sentences,  and  this  passes  over  into  the  habit  of  logical 
thinking  and  logical  writing.  Spelling,  punctuation,  a  taste  and  feel- 
ing for  all  the  elements  involved  in  good  literary  composition,  and 
without  which  no  good  writing  is  possible,  all  force  themselves  into 
and  become  a  part  of  the  mental  fibre  of  the  pupil.  Much  practice 
in  this  kind  of  composition  will  give  the  pupil  a  correct  idea  of  what 
good  writing  is,  and  thus  almost  imperceptibly  a  good  style  is  ac- 
quired. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR.  39 

Dictation  exercises  are  not  designed,  of  course,  to  supersede  en- 
tirely what  is  called  original  composition,  or  other  formal  language 
work.  They  will  always  lack  the  stimulus  of  original  thought.  They 
are  especially  helpful,  however,  in  preparing  the  pupil  for  the  me- 
chanical work  of  composition,  and  should  never  be  neglected. 

A   STUDY  OF   THE    MENTAL   OPERATIONS   OF   THE   PUPIL   INVOLVED    IN    DIC- 
TATION AS  A  LANGUAGE  EXERCISE. 
I. 

1.  Sense  perception  through  hearing  and  sight. 

2.  Revival  of  images  and  concepts  previously  associated  with  the 
separate  and  individual  words  dictated. 

3.  Ideas   received  through   sense  percepts,   and  these  ideas   held 
in  relations  (thoughts)  in  the  process  of  combining  dictated  words  into 
sentences. 

4.  Judgment  exercised  in  the  process  of  reasoning  as  to  where 
one  sentence  begins  and  another  ends. 

n. 
Conclusions  from  the  study  of  items  1,  2,  3,  and  4  of  above: 

1.  The  mental  operations  involved  are  complex  and  many-sided. 

2.  Attention  is  active  in  getting  and  keeping  in  memory  sense 
perceptions;  and  the  imagination,  in  observing  their  proper  relations 
in  the  order  of  thought  as  the  fingers  jot  them  down. 

3.  The  judgment  and  reason  are  active  in  the  determining  pro- 
cesses of  combining  words  into   sentences,   and  sentences  into  para- 
graphs. 

4.  The  will  is  active  in  holding  the  mental  operations  involved 
in  propfcr  balance  for  the  performance  of  the  subject  in  hand. 

5.  The  sensibilities  will  be  active  in  proportion  to  the  ideal  re- 
lation of  sympathetic  harmony  between  teacher  and  pupils,  and  the 
wisdom  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  dictation  lesson. 

4.     QUOTATIONS,  OR  MEMORY  GEMS. 

Let  the  quotation  for  the  day  be  written  upon  the  blackboard  be- 
fore school,  to  be  read  aloud  by  the  pupils  after  the  morning  exercises. 
Give  a  short  time  to  the  study  of  the  selection.  If  necessary,  speak 
of  the  author,  the  meaning  of  the  lines,  and  any  figure  of  speech  that 
may  occur  in  them.  Do  not  preach  to  the  pupils,  however;  but  let 
the  quotation  of  itself  sink  into  the  consciousness  of  the  learner,  and 
bear  its  message  and  fruit  in  proper  season. 

Encourage  older  pupils  to  copy  the  quotations,  as  well  as  to  com- 
mit them  to  memory.  This  will  stimulate  them  to  add  selections 
found  in  their  own  reading.  Let  them  find  quotations  for  the  school 
occasionally.  They  will  doubly  appreciate  a  good  thought  which  they 
have  found  for  themselves,  and  handed  on  for  the  benefit  of  others. 

Use  the  quotations  frequently,  to  fix  them  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils.  Their  value  to  them  is  in,  the  future  as  well  as  the  present 
good  resulting  from  them;  repetition  will  make  memory  more  cer- 


40  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

tain.  If  any  fail  at  an  attempt  to  repeat,  do  not  affix  a  penalty;  for 
such  thoughts  are  not  most  helpful  when  associated  in  memory  with 
punishment. 

It  is  well  for  pupils  to  learn  a  standard  poem  occasionally,  in- 
stead of  detached  quotations. 

Some  poems  well  adapted  to  concert  recitation  are: 

Barefoot  Boy,  and  selections  from  Snow  Bound,  by  Whittier. 

Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree,  Lines  to  a  Water  Fowl,  The  Fringed 
Gentian,  by  Bryant. 

Psalm  of  Life,  The  Builders,  Ladder  of  St.  Augustine,  The  Child- 
ren's Hour,  by  Longfellow. 

The  Chambered  Nautilus,  by  O.  W.  Holmes. 

Each  and  All,  The  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel,  by  Emerson. 

Step  by  Step,  by  Holland. 

One  by  One,  Maximus,  by  Adelaide  Proctor. 

These  are  only  suggestive,  and  must  be  extended,  of  course,  by  the 
teacher. 

In  the  higher  grades,  devote  a  school  term  occasionally  to  the 
study  of  some  one  poet.  Let  the  quotations  be  chosen  from  his  writ- 
ings, and  some  of  the  supplementary  reading  as  well.  Talk  of  his 
life,  home,  friends.  Make  him  seem  a  reality,  not  a  myth,  to  the 
pupils. 

5.     FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

Figurative  language  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and 
attractive  exercises  in  language  work,  and  may  be  taught  incidentally 
in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  in  connection  with  grammar.  The 
teacher  should  use  it  as  one  of  the  means  of  interesting  pupils  in 
their  lessons  by  developing  the  imagination,  and  in  order  to  lead 
them  to  see  and  feel  the  beauty  of  the  figurative  language  that 
abounds  in  prose  and  poetry. 

They  need  not  be  told  that  they  are  going  to  learn  comparison, 
simile,  metaphor,  personification,  etc.;  just  teach  them  when  giving 
composition  exercises  and  grammatical  forms,  by: 

(1)  Select  a  number  of  adjectives,  as  brave,  timid,  busy,  comi- 
cal, patient,  fierce,  dumb,  agile,  strong.     Add,  in  another  list,  soldier, 
hare,  bee,  monkey,  tiger,  ox,  squirrel,  lion.     Apply  the  adjectives  to 
the  people  and  make  comparisons  with  animals,   e.  g.,   The  soldiers 
were  as  brave  as  lions. 

(2)  Write  a  number  of  selections  like  these  on  the  blackboard: 
Sharp  knife,  sharp  tongue;  foot  of  the  child,  foot  of  the  mountain; 
crown  of  the  king,  crown  of  the  tree;  wings  of  the  swallow,  wings 
of  the  morning;  the  source  of  the  river,  the  source  of  joy.     Let  the 
class  write:    (a)  the  literal  forms,  (b)   those  that  are  figurative,   (c) 
then  make  sentences  containing  forms  of  speech. 

(3)  Ask   questions   like  these:      What   flower   is   the   symbol    of 
purity?  of  modesty?  of  beauty?    What  tree  is  the  symbol  of  strength? 
of  grief?  of  peace?     What  season  is  compared  to  childhood?  to  old 
age?     Make  oral  sentences,  lead  the  class  to  see  the  relation  between 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION   AND   GRAMMAR.  41 

the  symbol  and  the  object,  and  give  a  reason  for  their  decision  in 
sentences  written  in  class  on  the  blackboard. 

(4)  Explain  what  such  phrases  as,  waving  grass,  moaning  pines, 
blinding   lightning,   glistening   dewdrops,    floating   clouds,   refreshing 
showers,  growing  plants,  etc.,  mean;  and  have  pupils  use  them  in  de- 
scriptive composition,  adapted  to  their  age  and  development. 

(5)  Change  figurative  language  into  literal  as:     His  locks  shone 
silver-white;  Fifty  sail  left  the  harbor;   The  whole  human   race  is 
mortal;  A  hundred  willing  feet  answered  the  call;  I  shall  never  cross 
his  threshold  again;    The  singing  of  the  birds  resounded   from  the 
trees. 

(6)  Use  proverbs  for  the  sake  of  variety,  and  to  arouse  interest 
by  having  pupils  use  them    in   conversation   and   on   paper.      Begin 
with  familiar  ones,  as :     Many  hands  make  light  work ;  Willing  hearts 
make  swift  feet;  Diligence  is  the  mother  of  good  fortune;  A  bird  in 
the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

(7)  Discuss   orally  such  sentences  as  these:      He  had  a   heavy 
heart;  Her  heart  is  not  in  her  work;  Do  not  set  your  heart  on  world- 
ly   things;    We    should    learn    some    things    by    heart;    Harden    not 
your  heart  against  the  unfortunate.     Let  the  pupils  use  these  expres- 
sions in  writing,  always  giving  a  reason  for  using  this  or  that  form. 

(8)  Again,  take  the  words  that  have  various  meanings  in  common 
use:   head,   eye,  tooth,   ears,   tongue,  as:      Give  the  horse  his   head; 
Don't  lose  your  head  when  danger  arises;  I  can  make  neither  head 
nor  tail  of  it;   The  boy's  head  is  turned;   It  is  hard  to  make  head 
against  the  stream.     After  oral  discussions,  let  pupils  apply  them  to 
the  same  person  or  thing  in  writing. 

(9)  Let  pupils  select  figurative  language  from  their  quotations, 
memorized  poems,  and  reading  lessons. 

(10)  Teachers  can  give  appropriate  selections  applicable  to  his- 
tory, geography,  or  elementary  cience  classes. 

The  New  Testament,  Shakespeare,  Childe  Harold,  Emerson,  and 
all  the  poets  contain  numberless  passages  suitable  for  this  grade 
work,  as  well  as  for  the  more  advanced. 

6.    PARAPHRASING  EXERCISES. 

In  the  lower  grades,  much  supplementary  work  has  been  done  by 
the  pupils  in  q-iving  the  life  history  of  some  living  thing,  (children 
are  more  interested  in  animal  life  than  plant  life,)  as  that  of  a  bee, 
an  ant,  a  squirrel,  etc.  Thus  the  pupil  has  been  brought  into  sym- 
pathy with  these  animals  through  a  knowledge  of  their  homes,  their 
troubles,  their  enemies,  etc.  The  pupils  have  written  something  about 
the  animal  selected,  beginning  somewhat  as  follows:  I  am  a  little 
squirrel.  My  mother  and  I  live  just  behind  a  wood-pile  in  Mr. 
Jones'  wood.  Our  home  is  lined  with,  etc. 

In  the  higher  grades,  it  will  be  found  that  the  most  satisfactory 
work  in  paraphrasing  can  be  accomplished  through  this  same  idea 
of  personality.  Take,  for  example,  "The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus," 


42  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

by  Longfellow.  The  pupils  study  and  read  the  poem  in  class,  and 
then  paraphrase.  Tell  them  to  imagine  that  they  are  on  the  light- 
house at  Norman's  Woe,  and  write  a  friend  giving  an  account  of  the 
terrible  storm  in  which  the  Hesperus,  with  all  on  board,  went  down 
on  the  rocks.  Allow  sufficient  play  for  the  imagination,  yet  insist 
upon  holding  to  the  truth. 

Other  poems  that  can  be  used,  are  "Paul  Revere,"  with  the  pupil  as 
Paul;  parts  of  "Hiawatha"  and  "Evangeline,"  many  historical  poems, 
etc. 

Another  way  to  vary  this  work  is  to  let  the  pupils  tell  the  story  as 
though  it  were  news  brought  by  a  post-rider  to  the  village  in  which 
they  live. 
7.     SYNONYM  EXERCISES  WITH  A  SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  IN  READING. 

This  work  is  most  valuable  for  exercising  and  developing  discrim- 
ination, judgment,  (especially  what  Herbart  terms  the  "aesthetic 
judgment,")  taste,  etc.  It  ought  to  begin  in  the  fifth  grade,  but  it 
is  especially  valuable  for  the  grades  above  the  fifth. 

Do  not  use  a  book  of  synonyms,  but  let  the  pupils  learn  how  to 
use  and  utilize  this  part  of  the  dictionary  in  the  study  of  words. 

In  the  study  of  the  selection,  the  teacher  designates  for  this  ex- 
ercise the  words  for  which  an  appropriate  synonym  is  to  be  used.  In 
the  preparation  of  the  lessons  each  day,  the  teacher  may  have  each 
pupil  copy  a  stanza  or  paragraph,  using  synonyms  for  the  words 
which  are  designated  by  some  mark,  as  a  star. 

As  a  review  lesson  in  spelling,  and  the  use  of  synonyms,  pro- 
nounce, the  words  marked  with  stars  for  pupils  to  write  in  a  column; 
and,  being  allowed  a  free  use  of  the  dictionary,  then  write  synonyms, 
in  a  second  column,  thus: 


1.  nature 

2.  holds 

3.  communion 

4.  visible 

5.  various 

6.  gayer 

7.  gladness 

8.  glides 

9.  dark 

10.  musings 

11.  mild 

12.  sympathy 

13.  steals 

14.  sharpness 

15.  ere 

16.  aware 


creation,  universe 

sustains,  carries  on,  continues 

converse,  intercourse 

perceptible,  apparent 

diverse,  manifold 

merrier,  livelier,  more  cheerful 

joyousness,  delightedness 

moves  gently 

gloomy 

meditations,  ponderings 

gentle,  soft,  calm,  tranquil,  tender,  pleasant 

compassion,  tenderness 

takes 

keenness,  acrimoniousness,   bitterness 

before,  sooner  than 

appraised,  informed 


The  above  are  the  words  marked  by  the  teacher  with  a  star,  in  the 
Synonym  Exercise  for  Study  in  Reading  "Thanatopsis,"  first  stanza. 

8.    FABLES. 

A  few  authors  of  "Language  Books"  use  a   great  many  fables. 
They   are  useful    for   "Lessons   in    Dictation,"    especially   useful    for 


LANGUAGE,   COMPOSITION   AND  GRAMMAR.  43 

"Lessons  in  Reproduction."  But  the  primary  use  is  in  the  "Lessons  of 
Application." 

After  the  pupils  have  become  familiar  with  two  or  three  fables, 
simply  as  stories,  they  should  be  led  to  see  that  a  truth  is  hidden  be- 
neath the  mere  story,  and  that  the  fable  really  means  something  and 
is  meant  to  teach  a  lesson.  If  this  is  well  understood  the  pupils  have 
learned  a  valuable  lesson;  that  of  looking  beneath  the  surface;  of 
reading  with  a  desire  to  find  the  real  meaning  of  books. 

The  pupils  soon  discover  that  fables  are  usually  stories  in  which 
animals  talk,  and  take  the  place  of  men.  The  figure  of  speech  called 
personification  may  now  be  taught.  Note:  The  use  of  capitals  in  a 
personified  noun  is  now  left  largely  to  the  inclination  of  the  writer. 

When  the  implied  meaning  of  a  fable  has  been  discussed  and  the 
moral  lesson  drawn  from  it,  this  truth  should  be  applied  to  some  sim- 
ple, practical  story  of  everyday  life.  A  fable  treated  in  this  way  be- 
comes an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  original  stories. 

The  pupils  are  asked  what  to  look  for  in  a  story,  and  usually  the 
teacher  draws  forth  the  idea  that  a  story  should  tell  the  time,  and 
the  place  of  something  that  happened  to  certain  people,  of  whom  they 
are  talking. 

An  outline  should  be  written  on  the  blackboard  and  followed  in 
the  composition  of  original  stories. 

The  following  order  is  given  only  as  an  example,  and  need  not 
be  strictly  followed  by  the  teacher: 

TITLE. 

1.  Time. 

2.  Place. 

3.  Characters. 

4.  Incident  (or  happening). 

5.  Result. 

6.  Conclusion — Moral. 

A  fable  should  first  be  given  as  a  lesson  in  reproduction  before  at- 
tempting to  apply  it.  After  a  discussion  in  the  grade,  as  to  the 
probable  meaning  of  the  fable,  the  pupils  might  give  orally  several 
short,  original  stories,  following  the  ideas  suggested  by  the  grade. 
In  this  way  a  train  of  thought  will  be  started  which  may  well  be  left 
to  sink  into  consciousness  and  progress  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
for  one  or  more  days.  In  lessons  requiring  thought  and  originality, 
do  not  adopt  a  course  of  crowding. 

After  this  preparation  an  interesting  language  lesson  may  be  given. 

Have  pupils  write  the  reproduction  of  the  fable,  and  then  on  the 
same  sheet  of  paper,  or  on  a  different  sheet,  the  application  of  it. 

9.     APPLICATION  OF  PROVERBS. 

The  same  general  treatment  already  given  for  fables  and  their 
application  may  be  adapted  by  the  teacher  to  language  lessons  in 
proverbs.  The  pupil  must  be  familiarized  with  the  character  of  the 
work  before  beginning  written  exercises  in  the  application  of  proverbs. 


44  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

After  th'e  pupils  have  been  provided  with  and  can  recite  a  few 
proverbs,  the  teacher  selects  one  to  be  studied  with  them.  They  de- 
cide that  a  proverb  is  a  short  saying  that  has  become  familiar  by 
constant  use,  and  that  has  a  two-fold  meaning.  That  the  words 
taken  literally  mean  just  what  they  express,  but  hidden  beneath  the 
apparent  meaning,  is  another  truth  applicable  to  the  incidents  of  the 
daily  lives  of  each  one  of  them.  It  is  this  truth  that  they  are  to 
look  for  and  apply. 

When  the  object  of  the  lesson  is  well  understood,  the  teacher  may 
assign  a  proverb  to  each  pupil,  if  the  grade  is  not  too  large  to  ex- 
haust the  stock  of  proverbs  on  hand,  or  the  grade  may  work  on  two 

or  three  of  them. 

10.    ACTION  LESSONS. 

Teachers  find  that  action  lessons,  doing  and  telling  how,  are  very 
useful  as  language  work. 

A  pupil  may  be  able  to  perform  an  action  with  skill  and  yet  fail 
in  describing  the  process  by  which  the  work  was  accomplished.  Many 
actions  either  in  school  or  home  work  will  be  found  good  subjects 
for  lessons  of  this  kind.  The  most  trifling  details  of  school  work 
will  be  raised  in  the  pupil's  estimation  by  these  lessons  and  con- 
sequently will  be  performed  with  greater  care. 

The  teacher  will  soon  discover  that  these  lessons  give  excellent 
exercise  in  the  highest  powers  of  the  mind,  and  that  it  is  not  an 
easy  thing  to  tell  exactly  how  a  thing  should  be  done.  The  language 
must  be  clear  and  concise.  To  vary  the  lesson  let  the  pupil  describe 
or  invent  a  game.  The  proof  that  the  description  is  well  given  will 
be  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  play  the  game  from  the  given  directions. 

Many  pupils  come  from  homes  where  the  aid  of  even  those  in  the 
lower  grades  is  necessary.  The  subject  for  action  lessons  can  thus 
be  drawn  from  many  varieties  of  home  work,  and  the  exercises  be 
made  decidedly  practical.  The  teacher  will  find  here  an  opportunity 
to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  a  duty,  even  a  humble  one,  well  per- 
formed is  noble. 

NOTE. — During  the  first  and  second  grades,  the  language  training 
is,  of  course,  principally  oral;  but  when  written  work  is  required,  it 
should  be  used  afterward  as  a  reading  exercise  The  thoaght  in  this 
work  being  that  of  the  pupil,  expression  will  come  naturally.  Pay 
much  attention  to  narration;  but  pupils  should  be  asked  to  relate  only 
those  events  that  they  have  witnessed  or  experienced  within  a  short 
time  previous  to  their  efforts  at  narration,  or  events  that  may  be  in- 
ferred by  inspecting  pictures  used  for  Constructive  Reading  Lessons. 

Make  all  the  language  exercises  brief;  and,  at  the  beginning,  also 
make  them  very  simple,  in  order  that  both  pupil,  and  teacher  may  be 
spared  the  discouragement  arising  from  the  attempt  to  overcome  too 
rapidly  the  initial  difficulties  of  composition,  such  as  spelling,  punctu- 
ation, penmanship,  formulation  of  thought,  and  the  various  conven- 
tionalities of  form. 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND  GRAMMAR.  45 


GRAMMAR. 


This  course  of  study  in  grammar  and  composition  is  a  broad,  gen- 
eral suggestive  outline  for  teachers,  and  is  planned  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  many  different  texts  adopted  in  our  state.  Teachers 
will  do  well  to  study  it  carefully,  to  study  the  pupils  carefully,  and 
then  modify  the  course  more  or  less,  as  the  ability  and  needs  of  the 
classes  may  demand.  For  further  help  and  suggestions  the  teacher 
will  find  of  great  value  the  following: 

1.  Prefaces  and  Introductions  to  the  various  grammars  adopted 
in  the  State. 

2.  Other  State  courses  of  study,  as  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  etc.,  free. 

3.  Various  city  courses  of  study,  as   Seattle,  Tacoma,   Spokane, 
etc.,  free. 

4.  Committee  of  Ten  Reports,  American  Book  Co.,  35c. 

5.  Course   of    Study   for    Common    Schools,    Hammond    Bros.    & 
Stephens,  Fremont,  Nebraska,  25c. 

6.  Chubb's  "The  Teaching  of  English,"  The  McMillan  Co.,  $1.00. 

7.  Other  Manuals.     Other  publishers.     Generally  free. 

Every  teacher  of  grammar  and  composition  should  bear  in  mind 
the  following: 

All  "rules  of  grammar,"  and  principles,  should  be  deduced  by  the 
pupil — under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher — from  the  reader,  geo- 
graphy, history,  etc.  They  should  not  be  memorized  from  the  gram- 
mar. 

The  text  itself  is  to  serve  as  a  manual  to  direct  the  teacher  what 
to  take  up,  and  to  give  him  suggestions,  .illustrations,  etc.  It  is  to  be 
used  by  the  student  after  the  law  has  been  developed,  e.  g.,  the 
teacher  finds,  after  consulting  the  course  of  study,  that  "capital  let- 
ters" is  the  next  topic  in  his  work.  He  turns  to  that  subject  in  his 
grammar  and  sees  the  various  uses  of  capitals,  suggestions,  illustra- 
tions, etc.  Thus  prepared,  he  wisely  selects  his  similar  illustrations 
from  the  reader,  etc.,  and  from  the  pupil's  own  usage  and  knowl- 
edge, and  thus  builds  up  or  deduces  the  laws  of  capital  letters. 
Never  should  the  teacher  start  with  the  general  law  of  the  text. 

The  teacher  should  always  bear  in  mind  the  purpose  of  teaching 
grammar.  It  is  to  help  the  child,  1st,  to  read  and  hear  correctly, 
with  discrimination,  and  with  understanding;  2nd,  to  speak  and  write 
correctly,  briefly,  simply,  with  discrimination,  and  with  force.  In 
every  phase  of  grammar  he  presents  to  his  pupils,  the  teacher  should 
ask  himself  if  this  particular  thing  fulfills  one  of  these  functions. 
If  it  does  not,  little  time  should  be  given  to  it.  The  other  things 
which  grammar  gives  to  a  student  will  take  care  of  themselves. 
Grammar  for  grammar's  sake,  is  of  minor  importance. 

The  course  of  study  attempts  to  suggest  general  topics  for  each 
semester  of  the  sixth  to  eighth  years,  and  gives  some  idea  of  the  de- 


46  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

tail  work  needed.     It  also  calls  special  attention  to  those  phases  of 
subjects  that  should  be  emphasized. 

Probably  three  periods  a  week  should  be  given  to  the  study  of 
grammar.  One  period  a  week  should  be  given  to  oral  composition, 
and  one  to  written  composition. 

The  subjects  of  compositions  should  be  chosen  half  from  the  geo- 
graphy, the  reader,  history,  etc.,  and  half  from  the  child's  own  ex- 
periences. They  should  also  include  letter  writing.  They  should  deal 
with  simple  narrative  and  descriptive  themes,  e.  g.,  "How  I  Spent 
Tk-mksgiving,"  "How  I  Make  Bread,"  "What  I  Did  My  Birthday," 
etc. 

Unless  the  errors  in  the  compositions  are  carefully  marked  by 
the  teacher  and  corrected  by  the  pupil,  little  good  will  come  from  this 
work. 

That  reading  goes  hand  in  hand  with  grammar  and  composition, 
must  always  be  borne  in  mind.  The  reader  is  a  source  for  the  laws, 
for  illustrations,  for  authority  in  cases  of  doubt  or  question,  and  for 
comparison  and  inspiration. 

In  all  subjects,  in  all  places  the  teacher  should  require  good  Eng- 
lish. 

SIXTH   YEAR — FIRST   SEMESTER. 

Spend  two  to  four  weeks  in  reviewing  the  work  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  grades, — placing  emphasis  on  the  practical,  useful  principles 
which  the  pupil  needs  in  writing  and  speaking  the  English  lan- 
guage. Give  one  or  two  lessons  on  the  purpose  and  value  of  the  study 
of  grammar  and  composition.  Take  up  the  most  common  laws  of 
capital  letters — chief  words  in  title  of  themes,  beginning  word  of  a 
sentence,  proper  nouns,  "I,"  "O,"  etc.  Spend  two  or  three  days  in  de- 
ducing from  the  reader,  or  other  texts,  the  chief  principles  underly- 
ing the  paragraph.  Study  thoroughly  the  simple  sentence — with  em- 
phasis upon  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  their  agreement.  Hand 
in  hand  with  the  study  of  the  subject  and  predicate  must  go  a  little 
study  of  the  parts  of  speech,  i.  e.,  classification.  Treat  thoroughly, 
too,  the  simple  clause  and  phrases.  Give  frequent  drills  in  dictation 
work,  to  fix  the  above  principles,  in  mind.  In  letter  writing,  study 
particularly  the  simplest  and  briefest  business  letters.  In  composi- 
tion, let  half  of  the  work  be  oral,  half  written.  The  oral  may  be  re- 
ports on  current  happenings,  on  material  from  the  other  lessons,  etc. 
The  same  themes  can  be  worked  up  in  written  reports.  Train  pupils 
to  talk  and  write  clearly  and  coherently.  Teach  every  pupil  to 
overcome  his  own  false  syntax,  as  found  in  his  themes. 

SIXTH  YEAR — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Deduce  (and  review)  from  the  reader  and  other  texts  the  more 
simple  points  of  punctuation,  such  as  the  period,  the  comma,  the 
question  mark,  etc.  Show  clearly  that  punctuation  is  solely  to  help 
the  reader  understand  exactly  what  the  writer  wishes  to  express 
and  that  in  general  position  of  words  in  the  sentence  should  be  such 


LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION  AND  GRAMMAR.  47 

that  little  punctuation  is  required.  Teach  the  compound  sentence — 
how  to  combine  simple  sentences,  and  how  to  separate  the  compound 
into  its  parts.  Study  modifiers,  participles,  and  infinitives.  Study 
the  complex  sentence.  Do  further  work  on  the  paragraph.  See  that 
the  pupil  can  arrange  its  content  carefully,  simply,  and  logically.  In 
composition  see  that  the  pupils  use  readily  the  principles  already 
learned  in  the  grammar.  In  letter  writing  teach  special  forms  of 
business  letters — as  applications  for  positions,  etc.  Continue  the  work 
in  dictation.  In  the  main  the  semester  should  be  a  continuation  of 
the  previous  one. 

SEVENTH  YEAR — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Review  in  a  few  lessons  the  essentials  of  the  sixth  year.  Spend 
a  lesson  or  two  in  discussing  what  inflection  is.  Show  that  "declen- 
sion," "comparison,"  "conjugation,"  are  "inflections"  of  different 
parts  of  speech.  If  you  can,  show  that  the  English  language  is  al- 
most an  "uninflected  language,"  when  compared  with  Latin  or  Ger- 
man,— which  are  highly  inflected  languages.  Learn  the  inflection  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns.  In  the  noun,  emphasize:  sommon 
and  proper,  how  form  plural,  and  how  form  possessive.  In  the  pro- 
noun emphasize:  the  correct  case  form,  the  right  demonstratives,  in- 
ter rogatives,  and  relatives.  In  the  adjective  emphasize:  the  right  ad- 
jective, and  a  discrimination  between  adjective  and  adverb.  Study 
the  friendship  letter.  Continue  dictation  work.  Teach  each  pupil 
his  own  errors  in  speech.  In  composition  continue  half  oral,  half 
written.  As  subjects  use  current  happenings,  topics  from  the  his- 
tory, pictures,  a  synopsis  of  a  story  read  by  the  pupil.  Study  speci- 
mens of  good  narration  and  description  from  the  various  text-books, 
magazines,  etc.  Outline  these,  deduce  the  principles  governing  them 
and  apply  these  principles  in  the  class-room  work.  Emphasize  sim- 
plicity, brevity,  and  correctness. 

SEVENTH  YEAR — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Study  the  remaining  "parts  of  speech."  In  the  verb  emphasize: 
those  irregular  verbs  in  most  common  usage,  as  "do,"  "go,"  etc,;  the 
choice  of  right  verb,  the  best  verb.  In  other  parts  of  speech  empha- 
size right  adverb,  best  adverb,  right  preposition,  best  preposition,  as 
"in"  and  "into,"  "by"  and  "with,"  etc.,  and  a  wise  discrimination  in 
the  choice  of  conjunctions.  With  all  this  inflection,  continue  the  study 
of  the  sentence  and  the  paragraph.  In  letter  writing  study  the  so- 
cial forms.  In  "false  syntax"  and  composition  continue  as  first 
semester.  A  little  work  on  simple  "explanation"  may  be  given  at  the 
last  of  the  semester  as,  "How  I  Prepare  My  Lessons,"  or  other  such 

subjects. 

EIGHTH  GRADE — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Make  a  thorough  study  of  analysis,  and  with  it  whatever  work 
in  diagraming  is  necessary  to  give  concrete  illustrations  for  difficult 
sentences  in  analysis.  Analyze  paragraphs,  chapters,  poems,  and 
stories.  Omit  all  puzzle  sentences,  and  sentences  with  archaic  or  un- 


48  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

usual  forms.  Teach  the  three  or  four  most  simple  figures  of  speech, 
as  the  simile,  metaphor,  etc.  Study  short  and  long  sentences,  bal- 
anced and  loose  sentences.  In  letter  writing  take  up  telegrams,  and 
other  business  forms  yet  untaught.  In  composition  deal  thoroughly 
with  description  of  types,  as  the  "Chinaman,"  the  Newsboy,"  etc., 
and  do  a  great  deal  with  "explanation."  Emphasize:  accuracy,  vari- 
ety of  sentence  form,  well-rounded  paragraphs,  well-organized  para- 
graphs, the  topic  sentence  of  paragraphs,  and  even  more  thoroughly 
the  deduction  and  making  of  plans  for  composition  work.  Have  pu- 
pils write  original  stories  of  a  simple  nature  from  outlines  furnished 
by  the  teacher.  In  all  the  work,  place  emphasis  upon  correct,  simple, 
brief,  yet  accurate  form. 

EIGHTH  GRADE — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Continue  work  of  the  first  semester  and  spend  four  or  five  weeks 
in  a  thorough  review  of  the  practical  working  principles  of  the  en- 
tire text.  Emphasize  those  things  in  which  the  pupils  show,  by  their 
conversation  and  class  and  composition  work,  that  they  need  further 
help. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


In  teaching,  as  in  other  work,  there  are  immediate  and  ultimate 
results  and  it  is  the  latter  that  are  of  more  consequence.  The  work 
that  the  pupil  is  doing  this  year  is  of  consequence  only  as  it  deter- 
mines what  he  will  do  in  years  to  come.  To  develop  a  taste  for 
geography  and  insure  its  careful  study,  not  only  through  the  pupil's 
school  days,  but  also  through  life;  to  make  it  a  constant  source  of 
knowledge,  assistance  and  happiness  is  the  end  most  to  be  desired. 

In  order  to  foster  such  growth  or  development  we  must  begin  by 
making  the  subject  a  part  of  the  learner's  own  observation  and  ex- 
perience. It  must  be  "Home  Geography,"  or,  in  other  words,  the 
first  CONSCIOUS  looking  about  of  the  child  upon  his  surroundings. 
The  true  order  of  geography  study  is:  "First,  see;  next,  produce; 
and  then  study  the  productions  of  others." 

Through  a  study  of  the  physical  forms,  the  industries  and  insti- 
tutions of  man  as  seen  in  and  around  his  own  home,  the  child  forms 
standards  of  comparison  by  which  to  gain  a  conception  of  the  world 
as  a  whole. 

Give  the  child  an  opportunity  to  observe  facts  in  nature.  The 
observing  of  them  will  be  easy  early  in  life,  thinking  about  them 
will  be  easy  later.  Begin  the  study  of  geography  with  field  work,  as 
this  gives  the  correct  concepts  of  type  forms  and  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Children  thus  learn  the  true  meaning  of  geographical  lan- 
guage. They  can  compare  what  they  learn  from  pictures  and  de- 
scriptions of  things  that  are  distant  and  strange  from  home  forms. 


GEOGRAPHY.  49 


Field  work  thus  becomes  the  best  preparation  for  the  use  of  the  text 
book  and  atlas.  Words  without  experience  to  explain  them  are  with- 
out value.  Field  work  is  therefore  necessary  in  all  departments  of 
geographical  instruction,  but  it  is  needed  in  greatest .  amount  at  the 
beginning  of  the  course  and  in  the  city  schools. 

The  teacher  who  has  the  preceding  ideas  or  principles  well  in 
mind  will  make  a  few  mistakes  in  applying  them  in  practice,  but  ex- 
perience gives  ease  in  this  as  in  all  other  work. 

The  following  cautions  and  directions  will  aid  the  novice  in  field 
lessons : 

1.  Be  sure  you  have  well  in  mind  what  you  are  to  attempt  to 
teach  in  the  field  lessons,  which  you  propose  to  give.     Make  a  written 
list  of  things,  few  at  first,  which  you  hope  to  accomplish. 

2.  Make  the  proposed  trip  first  alone,  or  in  company  of  another 
teacher,  and  work  out  the  plan  of  your  entire  lesson  on  the  spot. 

3.  Take  a  small  section  of  your  class  at  first,  you  can  take  more 
pupils  after  practice. 

4.  Remember  that  the  object  of  the  field  lesson  is  to  have  your 
pupils  observe  natural  objects  of  phenomena  which  they  have  never 
observed  before. 

5.  Learn  how  to  have  most  of  the  talking  done  by  the  pupils 
without  allowing  the  conversation  to  wander  from  the  subject  of  the 
lesson. 

6.  Have  the  pupils  use  as  many  senses  as  possible  in  the  study  of 
an  object. 

7.  Give  due  prominence  to  relations,   cause,   effect,   comparative 
position,  weight,  size,,  usefulness,  etc. 

8.  Teachers   sometimes  fail   in  field  work  because  they  attempt 
to  teach  too  much  in  one  lesson.     It  is  wiser  to  have  brief  lessons  of 
short  duration  and  to  develop  one  truth  at  each. 

9.  The  language  used  must  be  simple   enough   for  third   grade 
children  while  the  science  is  as  reliable  as  in  the  most  elaborate  phys- 
ical geography. 

10.  Too  great  demands  should  not  be  made  upon  the  pupil's  power 
of  attention  in  the  field  any  more  than  in  the  school-room. 

11.  Free  and  full  reproductions  of  the  work  of  the  field  lesson 
are  to  be  required  from  each  pupil.     These  lessons  or  reproductions 
may  be  either  oral  or  written,  or  both. 

The  time  and  thought  taken  for  a  few  field  lessens  a  year  does 
not  detract  from  the  quality  of  work  possible  in  the  fundamental  les- 
sons of  the  school  course,  and  brings  rich  returns  in  a  larger  knowl- 
edge and  better  appreciation  of  natural  life. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  physical  geography  is  always  more 
interesting  to  the  child  than  either  local  or  political  geography  and 
should  precede  it,  for  by  giving  the  child  what  he  likes  best  we  are 
working  along  the  line  of  least  resistance  and  will  secure  better  re- 
sults with  less  effort. 

It  is  possible  to  classify  the  topics  of  home  geography  under  a 
few  large  heads,  like,  soil,  hills,  mountains,  valleys,  drainage,  rain- 


50  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

fall,  etc.,  and  to  take  up  the  details  of  each  group  in  succession,  show- 
ing the  illustrations  of  each  in  the  immediate  environment.  It  does 
not  seem  wise  to  do  this  for  several  reasons.  In  the  first  place  class- 
ification should  not  be  introduced  in  the  beginning,  but  rather  de- 
veloped as  the  work  progresses.  Another  reason  for  not  so  arrang- 
ing the  topics  is  that  it  tends  to  take  away  from  the  subject  its  dis- 
tinct personal  flavor.  We  want  our  geography  to  be  HOME  geography 
in  fact  as  well  as  in  name.  In  a  school  course,  therefore,  those  top- 
ics should  be  first  introduced  that  influence  most  directly  the  largest 
number  of  pupils  in  their  out-of-school  life.  Out  of  school  is  associ- 
ated with  play  and  has  already  given  the  pupil  many  experiences  that 
can  be  used  to  good  advantage.  The  school-room  or  school-yard  may 
be  a  fine  field  for  geographical  topics  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
these  are  the  only  fields  of  introduction  to  the  subject. 

Every  locality  has  its  own  peculiar  home  geography  by  which  the 
individual  teacher  must  be  guided.  On  the  prairies  of  Nebraska  or 
the  plains  of  Dakota  soil  is,  perhaps,  the  leading  topic  for  considera- 
tion, especially  in  the  country  districts.  This,  however,  does  not  hold 
true  in  all  localities. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  make  it  as  personal  as  possible  so 
that  each  child  may  contribute  his  share  of  experience  to  the  general 
fund.  With  such  a  beginning  it  is  easy  to  lead  out  to  the  conditions 
of  the  vicinity  and  the  home.  The  necessity  for  food,  clothing,  fuel, 
lights,  water,  transportation,  communication,  streets,  sewers,  etc.,  are 
all  topics  to  be  considered  at  this  stage  of  the  work. 

When  the  more  important  home  features  influencing  the  life  of 
the  children  have  been  brought  out  and  related,  enlarge  the  field  of 
the  subject  radially  until  the  whole  world  is  sketched  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  individual  pupil. 

By  means  of  imaginary  journeys  the  most  important  points  in 
the  home  county  are  visited  and  the  occupations,  productions,  surface 
and  climate  noted  and  compared  with  like  conditions  at  home.  The 
means  of  communication  and  traveling  are  discussed,  particularly 
the  uses  and  importance  of  roads,  railroads,  navigable  rivers,  oceans, 
bays,  harbors,  lighthouses,  the  telephone,  the  telegraph,  and  the  post- 
offices,  with  occasional  reference  to  the  conditions  that  have  deter- 
mined the  paths  of  the  railroads,  the  position  of  lighthouses,  the  lo- 
cation of  harbors,  etc. 

While  studying  local  geography  the  pupil  is  incidentally  intro- 
duced to  relative  and  exact  distance  and  direction.  He  learns  to  dis- 
tinguish between  a  picture  and  a  plan  or  map,  hence  is  ready  to  work 
intelligently  on  regions  that  are  distant  and  strange. 

The  needs  of  the  child  and  their  fulfillment  suggest  the  means 
for  carrying  on  this  branch  of  the  work.  He  is  easily  led  from  him- 
self to  a  study  of  the  agents  needed  to  supply  his  wants.  It  is  not  a 
long  step  for  him  to  go  from  the  food  he  eats  to  the  farmer  who 
helps  to  provide  it,  or  to  the  means  employed  in  its  transfer  from  the 


GEOGRAPHY— THIRD   GRADE.  51 

farm  to  the  home.  Nor  is  it  hard  for  him  to  combine  the  thought  of 
the  busy  miner  toiling  in  the  dark  earth  with  that  of  his  own  warmth 
and  comfort.  , 

Through  this  work  he  realizes  something  of  the  great  amount  of 
labor  necessary  to  supply  the  needs  of  daily  life  and  also  some  of 
the  physical  conditions  which  determine  this  labor.  He  sees  his  de- 
pendence upon  others  and  the  need  of  doing  his  share  of  the  world's 
work.  He  is  gaining  more  than  simply  a  superficial  knowledge  of 
commercial  and  physical  geography  for  his  interests  are  broadened 
and  his  sympathies  deepened. 

In  passing  from  the  home  outward,  those  commodities  in  most 
common  use  are  dealt  with  first.  As  each  commodity  is  considered 
the  people  and  lands  that  produce  it  are  studied.  No  part  of  the 
work  in  geography  is  so  full  of  interest  to  the  ordinary  child  as  the 
people  of  the  world,  how  they  dress,  what  they  eat,  how  they  live, 
their  manners,  customs,  productions  and  means  of  transportation. 
These  are  live  subjects.  Children  are  much  more  eager  to  know  how 
John  Chinaman  lives  when  at  home  than  to  know  where  the  Chinese 
Empire  is  located.  The  condition  of  climate,  surface,  soil,  transporta- 
tion and  labor  that  makes  the  commodity  a  possible  product  is  thus 
an  objective  point.  In  this  way  a  casual  study  is  made  of  the  life 
and  of  the  varying  conditions  of  the  world.  Casual  geography  may 
be  made  very  attractive  to  the  children  and  by  emphasizing  it  we 
lay  a  broad  foundation  for  future  work. 

THIRD  GRADE — FIRST   SEMESTER. 

Surface  features  in  immediate  vicinity  of  school. 

Study  of  atmospheric  conditions  through  daily  weather  observations 
and  records. 

Direction:  (1)  Relative,  as  "toward,"  "right  hand,"  "left  hand," 
etc.  (2)  Exact,  as  how  the  sun  shows  direction;  how  the  compass 
shows  direction;  observation  of  the  positions  of  the  North  Star 
and  the  Big  Dipper. 

Distance:  Necessity  for  standard  of  distance  shown  from  use  of 
relative  distance  as  expressed  by  "near  to,"  "far  from,"  etc. 
These  terms  are  too  indefinite.  An  exact  unit  must  be  taken  first 
as  the  standard.  Teach  the  mile  as  a  unit,  and  from  this  start- 
ing develop  an  appreciation  of  distances.  Develop  accurate  ideas 
of  a  minute,  a  ten  minute  period,  half  an  hour,  an  hour,  as  units 
of  thought.  Use  these  units  of  time  as  means  of  developing  the 
larger  units  of  distance — such  as  ten  miles,  twenty  miles,  etc. 
Easy  distances  measured  in  paces  and  feet. 

Plan  of  school  room,  school  yard  and  of  that  part  of  the  city  or 
country  adjacent. 

Natural  phenomena:  Rain,  snow  and  hail;  steam,  mist,  fog;  clouds 
— form  and  work;  dew — where,  when;  frost;  springs — where, 
why;  rivers  and  brooks;  wine?  and  its  work. 


52  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

Local   Geography:     Industries  of  home  region  as  determined  by  its 
surface,    soil,   climate,   waterways   and   railroads. 

Imaginary  journeys   to   important  points   in   home   county,    studying 
each  by  comparing  with  home  region  as  to  similarities  and  differ- 
ences. 
Model  and  draw  up  map  of  county.     Make  progressive  map  while 

conducting  class  through  county. 

THIRD  GRADE — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Child  life  in  other  lands: 

Our    homes — some   other   homes.      Our     clothing     and     food — the 

clothing  and  food  of  other  children. 
Our  amusements— other  children's  amusements. 
Our  schools— the  schools  of  other  children. 
Roads,  paths  and  streets. 
How  we  travel — how  our  forefathers  traveled — how  other  people 

travel. 

FOURTH  GRADE — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

The  world  as  a  whole: 

Location  of  hot,  cold  and  temperate  parts  of  the  world. 

Land  and  water*  in  cold  part. 

Follow  same  order  in   teaching  hot  and   temperate  parts  of  the 

world. 

Position  and  form  of  Western  Continent. 
Position  and  form  of  Eastern  Continent. 
Position  and  form  of  each  of  the  six  grand  divisions. 
Map  reading  and  making.     To  include  progressive  maps;   relief, 

temperatue,  rainfall,  production,  population  and  transportation 

maps. 

Comparison  of  Western  and  Eastern  Continents. 
The  great  oceans.     The  inhabitants,  of  the  sea. 

FOURTH  GRADE — SECOND  SEMISTER. 
Local  Geography: 

Teach  State  of  Washington  as  a  whole — showing  relief,  drainage, 

etc. 
Review    work   of   third    grade    on    home    county,    and    teach    the 

counties  of  the  state  in  detail. 

Soil :     How  made ;  work  of  water  on  soil ;  brooks  and  soil ;  germin- 
ation. 

NOTE. — Work  on  soil  and  germination  to  be  carried  on  experi- 
mentally, by  means  of  specimens,  window  boxes  and  school  gardens. 

FIFTH   GRADE— FIRST  SEMESTER. 
A  general  study  of  North  America: 

1.  Location  as  to  land  masses. 

2.  Latitude  and  longitude. 

3.  Topographical  study,  with  drawing  of  relief  maps,  or  model- 

in  sand,  clay  or  putty. 


GEOGRAPHY— SIXTH   GRADE.  53 

Study  of  United  States  as  a  whole: 

1.     Location,  form,  size,  indentions,  projections,  surface,  climate, 

productions,   industries,   transportation,   cities,    government. 

During  this  study  constant  map  drawing:      (1)    Relief  maps 

in  black  and  white   (2)    product  maps  in  color. 

Study  of  United  States  in  sections,  with  map  making :  Relief,  product. 

FIFTH  GRADE — SECOND  SEMESTER. 
United  States  dependencies: 

Alaska.     Porto   Rico.     Philippines.     Hawaiian  Islands. 
A  general  study  of  South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  etc. 

To  be  studied  as  above,  with  map  making,  to  show  surface,  pro- 
ductions, etc. 

SIXTH   GRADE — FIRST   SEMESTER. 
Globe  lessons: 

Form  and  size  of  earth. 

Motions:      (1)   Daily  and  results,   (2)   yearly' and  results. 

NOTE. — Use  lamp  and  globe  in  teaching  earth's  motions   and 
change  of  seasons;  teach  ellipse;   foci  of  ellipse,  meaning  of  de- 
gree; zones;  prime  meridian  and  equator  as  base  lines  for  meas- 
urement of  latitude  and  longitude. 
Physiography : 

1.  Forms  of  land  as  shaped  by  work  of  atmosphere  and  water. 

Mountains;  valleys,  young  and  old;  plains,  plateaus,  soils, 
divides,  river  basins. 

2.  The  atmosphere. 

Composition :  Showing  by  experiment  at  least  carbon  diox- 
ide, oxygen,  water  vapor.  Develop  properties  of  CO  2 
and  O. 

Primary  cause  of  winds  by  experiment  (show  rise  of  heated 
air). 

Study  of  .great  wind  systems  of  world. 

Belt  of  calms,  trade  winds,  prevailing  westerlies. 

NOTE. — These  are  well  shown  in  Physical  Geography. 
This  study  of  the  wind  systems  is  fundamental  to 
the  study  .of  climate.'  If  possible,  study  United  States 
weather  maps. 

Monsoons,  ocean  currents,  climate  of  land  as  affected  by 
prevailing  winds  and  nearness  to  water. 

3.  Distribution  of  plants,  animals;  races  of  men;  kinds  of  gov- 

ernment,  religion;    occupations   of   man. 
North  Ameria  and  detailed  study  of  the  United  States. 

SIXTH  GRADE — SECOND  SEMESTER. 
South  America: 

Location,  extent,  coastal  features. 

Physical  features :     Study  and  drawing  of  rapid  relief  maps. 
Climate,   productions;   people,   occupations. 

Countries  in  detail,  emphasizing  more  important,  as  Brazil,  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  Chili. 


54  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

Eurasia  as  a  whole: 

Position  on  globe,  form,  size,  coast  features,  physical  features 
(emphasizing)  :  (1)  Continuous  great  northern  plain  extend- 
ing from  Atlantic  to  Pacific  and  constituting  Russian  Em- 
pire. (2)  Great  central  highland,  also  extending  from  At- 
lantic to  Pacific). 
Europe : 

General  idea  of,  from  map  reading:  (1)  Comparative  size,  re- 
markable coast  line.  (2)  Relief:  Great  lowland  plain,  high- 
lands of  Scandinavia  and  United  Kingdom,  Alps,  Iberian  pen- 
insula, Italy,  Carpathian  region,  Balkan  peninsula,  Caucasus 
and  Ural  regions,  plains  of  Hungary  and  the  Po  river. 

Climate  as  affected  by  prevailing  westerlies  and  ocean. 
Europe  in  detail: 

Teach  countries  in  order  given  in  text  used,  placing  most  empha- 
sis upon  British  Isles,  German  Empire,  France,  and  others 
with  which  we  are  most  vitally  concerned.  Teach  Russia  as 
including  Siberia,  making  a  special  point  of  Trans-Siberian 
Railroad  and  its  bearing  on  commerce. 

NOTE. — It  seems  logical  to  take  up  some  discussion  of  the 
foreign  possessions  of  each  country  with  the  study  of  that 
country. 

SEVENTH  GRADE — FIRST  SEMESTER. 
Asia: 

Situation  relative  to   great   Eurasian   plain   and   highland. 
Coast  line;  projections  and  indentations,  adjacent  islands. 
Relief,  with  map  work. 
Climate:     Especially  monsoons  of  India,  central  deserts,  extreme 

temperatures  of  northern  part. 
Countries  of  Asia  in  detail. 

Place  most  emphasis  upon  China,  India  and  Ceylon,  Japan,  Ma- 
lay Archipelago. 
Africa : 

On  account  of  the  undeveloped  condition  of  this  grand  division, 

it  is  best  to  teach  it  in  its  physical  and  commercial  aspects. 
Division  as  a  whole. 

Situation   on   globe,   relief    (emphasizing  great   river   valleys), 

coast,  climate. 

Northern,  central,  southern  Africa   (emphasizing  Nile  valley,  Sa- 
hara) . 

Adjacent  islands. 
Australia,    Tasmania,    New    Zealand,    Pacific    Islands. 

SEVENTH  GRADE — SECOND  SEMESTER. 
Comparative  Geography: 

Review  and  intensive  study  of  State  of  Washington. 
Relief,  with  map  making. 


GEOGRAPHY  — SEVENTH  GRADE.  55 

Noting   six   divisions:      Olympics,    Sound   Basin,    Cascades, 
Okanogan    Highlands    (region    north    of    Columbia    and 
Spokane  rivers),  great  lava  plain,  Blue  Mountains. 
Rivers  and  river  valleys. 

Climate:     Contrasting  that  each  side  of  Cascades. 
Products:     Making  of  maps  embodying  these. 
Irrigated  valleys  and  projects. 

NOTE. — Much  valuable  information  on  these  subjects  is  to 

be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  the  State  Geological   Survey. 

Transportation:      Commodities    locally    shipped;     commodities 

exported  from  state. 

Dwell  upon  advantageous  location  of  state  for  transpacific 

and  Alaska  trade. 
Important  state  railroad  lines. 

Counties,    leading    cities,    state,  institutions,    government. 
Review  of  United  States  in  comparison  with  other  countries. 

Knowledge  of  the  geographical  features,  natural  resources  and 
development  of  our  own  country  should  be  definite  and  broad.  This 
work  should  be  something  more  than  a  mere  review  of  the  subject 
as  previously  taken  up.  The  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  country's  his- 
toray,  together  with  his  more  matiired  powers  of  observation,  should 
make  the  work  more  of  a  study  of  cause  and  effect  and  give  results 
in  breadth  of  understanding,  which  could  not  be  attained  in  the  lower 
grade  work.  The  study  of  the  continent  should  be  introduced  by  a 
discussion  of  the  historical  events  that  led  to  its  discovery,  settle- 
ment, development  and  division  into  countries  as  we  now  find  it.  Its 
geography — physical  and  political — should  be  carefully  reviewed, 
placing  stress  upon  features  that  constitute  important  causes  in  its 
development;  such  as  navigable  streams,  harbors,  mineral  deposits, 
climate,  etc. 


56  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


HISTORY. 


The  question  of  instruction  in  history  in  the  grades  below  the 
high  school  is  one  that  concerns  the  present  condition  of  such  instruc- 
tion and  also  of  an  ideal  condition  towards  which  it,  is  possible  to  work. 

About  one-half  of  the  states  have  a  uniform  course  in  history. 
Those  states  that  have  a  uniform  course  and  are  required  to  follow 
it  are  among  the  most  advanced  in  public  education. 

The  formative  influence  of  classic  literature  and  good  reading 
upon  young  people  is  generally  admitted.  The  reading  of  choice 
books  by  boys  and  girls  is  an  indication  of  intellectual  and  moral  pro- 
gress. Such  a  taste  once  formed  is  a  great  aid  in  the  subsequent 
work  of  education.  But  where  does  this  taste  begin  and  how  may  it 
be  fostered?  The  schools  of  today  are  not  in  the  habit  of  meeting, 
or  do  not  generally  attempt  to  meet,  this  problem  until  the  children 
are  verging  into  manhood  and  womanhood,  that  is,  until  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades. 

What  of  the  years  from  six  to  fourteen  in  which  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  children  get  their  whole  school  training?  If  there  are 
choice  tales,  myths,  stories  and  histories,  which  have  the  power  to 
impress  youthful  fancy  and  feeling,  let  the  early  years  reap  the  full 
benefit.  The  school  knows  best  how  to  open  the  door  and  lead  the 
children  in;  or  at  least  it  should  be  the  pride  of  teachers  to  fit  them- 
selves for  this  duty.  What  books  to  select  and  how  to  best  present  the 
stories  to  children  can  be  better  judged  by  thoughtful  educators  than 
by  parents. 

The  makers  of  our  programmes  have  encouraged  the  public  to 
believe  that  the  history  of  the  United  States  is  the  only  history  worth 
studying,  in  that  it  is,  as  a  rule,  the  only  history  prescribed.  It  is 
studied  in  the  seventh  grade  from  1492  to  1789,  and  in  the  eighth 
grade  from  1789  to  the  present.  This  course  gives  but  a  warped, 
narrow,  corcumscribed  view  of  history.  It  is  history  detached  from 
its  natural  foundation — European  history;  it  is  history  suspended  in 
mid-air;  it  is  history  that  has  no  natural  beginning. 

It  is  indeed  difficult  to  decide  where  the  history  of  America  should 
begin.  If  with  the  period  of  discovery  and  exploration,  then  it  is  in 
reality  European  history;  if  with  the  period  of  colonization,  then  it 
is  rather  English  history;  if  with  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution, 
then  it  is  the  history  of  a  youth  after  he  has  attained  his  majority, 
but  whose  past  is  in  oblivion.  If  the  instruction  in  history  in  France 
and  Germany  is  confessedly  superior  to  that  given  in  other  countries, 
it  is  in  no  small  part  due  to  the  breadth  of  view  gained  through  the 
careful  study  of  the  history  of  other  nations.  The  social  unit,  the 
political  unit,  and  the  ecclesiastical  unit,  is  constantly  enlarging,  and 
the  educational  curriculum  must  widen  its  boundaries  if  it  is  to  keep 
pace  with  the  evolution  in  other  directions. 


HISTORY— FIRST   AND   SECOND  GRADES.  57 

Any  study  of  American  history  must  be  worse  than  barren  that 
demands  the  memorizing  of  a  text-book,  and  leaves  a  boy  in  ignorance 
as  to  what  are  the  fundamental  facts  in  American  history ;  that  in- 
sists upon  detailed  information  in  regard  to  the  campaigns  of  the 
Revolutionary  War,  but  gives  no  notion  of  personal  responsibility 
to  the  government  established  through  that  war. 

The  history  of  the  United  States  is  usually  studied  during  the 
last  two  years  of  the  grammar  grade,  when  the  boy  or  girl  is  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  years  old.  This  means  that  valuable  time  has 
been  lost,  for  long  before  this  age  the  interest  of  the  child  should 
have  been  awakened  and  held  by  the  pictures  of  the  past.  In  many 
instances  the  study  of  history  is  not  correlated  with  either  geography 
or  literature.  Text-books  are  used  many  times  without  collateral 
reading. 

No  criticism  of  existing  methods  is  justified  unless  it  carries  with 
it  a  recommendation  of  changes  that  will  possibly  bring  improve- 
ment. The  following  course  is  modeled  after  courses  in  some  of  the 
best  American  schools,  and  in  its  preparation  a  careful  study  of  the 
programmes  of  work  in  history  in  the  schools  of  England,  France, 
and  Germany  was  also  made.  It  is  believed  that  the  following  scheme 
of  work  in  history  can  not  only  be  justified  by  appeal  to  educational 
theory,  but  that  it  can  also  be  defended  as  practical,  inasmuch  as  it 
already  carried  out  either  wholly  or  in  part  in  many  schools. 

FIRST  AND   SECOND   GRADES. 

FOLK-LORE  AND  FAIRY  TALES. 

Young  children  in  the  first  grade  are  in  the  story  loving  period^ 
and  are  delighted  with  stories.  Stories  should  always  employ  ideals 
— ideals  of  courage,  strength,  wisdom,  patience,  generosity,  unsel- 
fishness, and  kindness.  Children  imitate  what  they  admire,  and  thus 
an  ideal  becomes  an  unconscious  influence  upon  character.  Ideals  are 
the  end  as  well  as  the  center  and  source  of  our  living.  All  the  other 
powers  are  but  means  by  which  we  seek  to  realize  our  ideals  in  our 
lives. 

The  plan  for  the  first  four  years  implies  that  the  object  is  to 
arouse  interest;  the  method  used  is  to  be  wholly  the  oral  one;  the 
stories  are  to  be  united  with  lessons  given  in  language  and  in  geo- 
graphy; the  selections  of  myths  and  stories  are  to  give  universal 
rather  than  particular  notions;  and  the  teacher  is  to  have  a  suffici- 
ent acquaintance  with  history  and  literature  to  be  able  to  decide  wise- 
ly concerning  the  selections  to  be  made.  The  following  suggestions 
have  proved  helpful  in  story  telling: 

1.  Know  the  story.     Read  many  books  for  the  fullest  possible 
information.     You  must  see  all  that  there  is  in  it  if  you  are  to  lead 
the  pupil  to  see  it. 

2.  Feel  the  story.     You  must  £jrst  be  touched  by  the  story  before 
you  can  touch  your  pupil  with  it.     Dr.  W.  L.  Hervey,  in  his  "Picture 


58  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


Work"  says:  "The  secret  of  story  telling  lies  not  in  analyzing  pro- 
cesses, not  even  in  imitating  good  models,  though  these  are  all  neces- 
sary, but  first  of  all  in  being  full — full  of  the  story,  the  picture,  the 
children,  and  then  in  being  morally  and  spiritually  up  to  concert 
pitch,  which  is  the  true  source  of  power  in  everything.  From  these 
come  spontaneity;  what  is  within,  must  come  out;  the  story  tells 
itself,  and  of  your  fullness  the  children  all  receive." 

3.  Shorten  it,  by  cutting  out  details  which  do  not  intensify  the 
pictures.     Brevity  is  the  soul  of  story-telling. 

4.  Expand   it,   by   giving   a   background   of   such   details   as   are 
necessary  for  a  clear  conception. 

5.  Repeat  it,  and  have  pupils  repeat  it.     A  good  story  is  always 
worth    repeating. 

LIST  OF  FAIRY  TALES. 

1.  "The    Old   Woman   and    Her    Pig"— Scudder's    Book    of    Folk 

Stories. 

2.  "Little  Red  Riding-Hood"— Grimm. 

3.  "The  Anxious  Leaf" — Beeker's  Norwood. 

4.  "The  Three  Bears"— Scudder's  Book  of  Folk  Stories. 

5.  "The  Lion  and  the  Mouse" — Aesop. 

6.  "Cinderella"— Grimm. 

7.  "The  Fir-Tree"— Andersen. 

8.  "The  Four  Musicians" — Grimm. 

9.  "The  Straw,  the  Coal  of  Fire,  and  the  Bean"— Grimm. 

10.  "The   Ugly   Duckling"— Andersen. 

Many  other  stories  may  be  selected  from  the  following  books: 
Grimm's  Fairy  Tales. 
Andersen's  Fairy  Tales. 
Lang's  Blue  Fairy  Tales. 
Lang's  Green  Fairy  Tales. 

THIRD   GRADE. 

In  this  grade  it  is  hoped  that  a  few  classical  myths  which  belong 
to  the  literature  of  Europe  will  be  brought  vividly  before  the  chil- 
dren. Two  or  three  recitations  a  week  may  be  set  apart  for  the  oral 
treatment  of  classical  myths.  Are  these  simple  charming  stories 
which  have  been  sifted  out  of  the  early  Grecian  literature  too  difficult 
for  children  from  nine  to  ten  years  old? 

Charles  Kingsley  in  preparing  the  Greek  myths  for  his  children 
wrote:  "How  I  love  those  old  Hellens — they  seem  to  me  like  broth- 
ers. They  are  come  to  tell  you  some  of  their  old  fairy  tales,  which 
they  loved  when  they  were  young  like  you."  Herbart,  the  philoso- 
pher, looked  upon  the  poems  of  Homer  as  giving  ideal  expression  to 
the  boyhood  of  the  race,  and  the  story  of  Ulysses  was  regarded  by 
him  as  the  boy's  book.  For  the  child  of  eight  and  nine  years  he 
thought  it  the  most  suitable  story.  Hawthorne  says  of  himself:  "The 
author  has  long  been  of  the  opinion  that  many  of  the  classical  myths 
were  capable  of  being  rendered  into  very  capital  reading  for  chil- 
dren. No  epoch  of  time  can  claim  a  copyright  on  these  immortal 


HISTORY— FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  GRADES.  59 

fables.  They  seem  never  to  have  been  made,  and  so  long  as  man 
exists  they  never  can  perish." 

The  astonishing  brightness  of  fanciful  episode  and  of  pure  and 
clear-cut  imagery  has  an  indestructible  charm  for  childern.  They 
soar  into  and  above  the  clouds  on  the  shining  wings  of  Pegasus. 
With  Eolus  they  shut  up  the  contrary  winds  in  an  ox-hide  and  later 
let  them  out  to  plague  Ulysses.  In  one  form  or  another  they  intro- 
duce us  to  heroes,  at  least  to  great  and  simple  characters.  These 
myths  bring  children  into  lively  contact  with  European  history  and 
geography.  The  early  history  of  Europe  is  in  all  cases  shrouded  in 
mist  and  legend. 

In  order  to  present  these  myths  in  an  acceptable  manner,  the 
teacher  must  steep  himself  fully  in  literature  of  this  class,  and  bring 
her  mind  into  familiar  acquaintance  and  sympathy  with  its  char- 
acters. It  is  well  to  mingle  oral  narrative  and  description  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  with  the  fit  reading  of  choice  parts  so  as  to  better  pre- 
serve the  classic  beauty  and  suggestion  of  the  author.  A  simple 
reading  of  these  stories  for  the  entertainment  of  the  children  is  not 
enough.  It  should  take  the  form  of  a  school  exercise,  requiring  not 
only  interest  and  attention,  but  vigorous  effort  to  grasp  and  repro- 
duce the  thought.  The  result  should  be  a  livelier  and  deeper  insight 
into  the  story  than  would  be  secured  by  a  simple  reading  for  amuse- 
ment. All  that  is  expected  is  that  this  paradise  of  children  may  be 
entered  and  a  few  of  its  choicest  flowers  plucked;  and  that  a  desire 
may  be  created  in  the  child  to  return  again  and  again. 

BOOKS  FOR  THIRD  GRADE. 

1.  "Adventures  of  Ulysses,"  by  Lamb — Ginn  &  Co.,  price  35c.     It 
contains  the  chief  episodes  of  the  career  of  Ulysses. 

2.  "The    Wonder    Book    of     Nathaniel    Hawthorne" — Houghton, 
Miiflin  &  Co.,  price  40c.     It  contains  among  others:      The  Gorgon's 
Head,  The  Golden  Touch,  the  Three  Golden  Apples. 

3.  "Kingsley's  Greek  Heroes" — Ginn  &  Co.     It  contains  the  stor- 
ies of  Perseus,  The  Argonauts,  Theseus  and  others. 

4.  "Jason's  Quest,"  by  Lowell.     The  Argonauts  with  many  other 
Greek  myths  woven  into  narrative. 

5.  "Stories  of  the  Old  World,"   by   Church — Ginn   &  Co.,   price 
50c.     Stories  of  the  Argo,  of  Thebes,  of  Troy,  of  Ulysses,  and   of 
Aeneas. 

6.  "Stories  of  Indian   Children,"  by  Mary  Hall   Husted— Public 
School    Publishing   Co.,    price    50c.      Contains    Indian    myths    in    the 
child's  language. 

Many  other  books  might  be  mentioned. 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH   GRADES. 

The  time  given  to  history  in  the  fourth  grade  may  be  limited  to 
two  hours  per  week,  and  the  method  oral  presentation.  The  entire 
field  of  history  should  be  covered  in  the  form  of  biography.  The  fol- 
lowing list  of  names  are  suggested,  not  as  a  final  selection  to  be 
rigorously  adopted,  but  as  indicating  one  way  of  arousing  interest 


60  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

and  of  conveying  historical  information  at  the  age  when  ideas  of 
time  and  place  relations  are  only  imperfectly  developed,  but  when 
interest  in  individuals  is  keen  and  active.  The  list  may  be  entirely 
changed,  but  the  principle  still  remains: 

GREECE — Lycurgis,  Solon,  Darius,  Leonidas,  Socrates,  Demosthe- 
nes, Plutarch.  • 

ROME — Romulus,  Cincinnatus,  Regulus,  Hannibal,  Caeesar,  Agri- 
cola. 

GERMANY — Alaric,  Gutenberg,  Charles  V.,  Luther,  Bismarck. 

FRANCE — Clovis,  Charlemange,  Louis  IX.,  Joan  of  Arc,  Riche- 
lieu, Napoleon/ 

ENGLAND — Arthur,  Alfred,  William  I.,  Elizabeth,  Raleigh,,  Crom- 
well, Pitt,  Clive,  Nelson,  Gladstone. 

SOUTHERN  EUROPE — Mohammed,  Loyola,  Isabella,  Columbus, 
Michel  Angelo,  Garibaldi. 

NORTHERN  EUROPE — Robert  Bruce,  Henry  Hudson,  Eric  the  Red, 
Adolphus,  Kossuth. 

AMERICA — John  Smith,  Wm.  Penn,  La Salle,  Patrick  Henry,  Boone, 
George  Rogers,  Clark,  Franklin,  Lincoln,  Washington,  Lee,  Fremont. 

For  splendid  and  helpful  suggestions  on  the  method  or  oral  pre- 
sentation see  "Special  Methods  in  History,"  by  McMurry. 

In  the  fifth   grade  use  the  adopted  book. 

BOOKS    FOR    FOURTH    AND    FIFTH    GRADES.. 

"Heroes  o'f  History,"  by  Ida  Prentice  Whitcomb— Maynard,  Mer- 
rill &  Co.  This  is  a  splendid  volume  containing  about  seventy  biog- 
raphies. 

"King  Arthur  and  His  Knights,"  by  Maude  L  .Radford.  Published 
by  Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

"Famous  Men  of  Greece,"  "Famous  Men  of  Rome,"  and  "Famous 
Men  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  by  Haaren  and  Poland.  Published  by  the 
University  Publishing  Co.,  price  50c  each. 

These  books  have  been  prepared  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
both  the  "Committee  of  Ten"  and  the  "Committee  of  Fifteen."  Each 
book  contains  some  thirty  biographies  written  in  as  simple  and  as 
interesting  a  manner  as  can  be  found  anywhere.  A  few  sets  should 
be  in  every  school.  These  books  should  be  read  by  or  to  the  pupils. 

SIXTH   GRADE. 

In  the  sixth  grade  use  the  adopted  book,  doing  the  work  as  out- 
lined therein.  In  those  districts  in  which  a  text  in  English  history 
has  been  adopted  it  is  recommended  that  the  following  outline  be 
followed : 

ENGLISH    HISTORY. 

On  first  thought  the  outline  which  follows  on  English  history 
may  seem  rather  heavy,  but  it  is  given  as  a  guide  for  the  teacher  as 
to  the  general  scope  and  nature  of  the  work.  A  careful  reading  and 
study  by  the  pupil  of  some  good  English  history,  will  be  ample  for 


HISTORY— SIXTH  GRADE.  61 

the  work  on  English  history.     This  work  in   English  history  is  an 
invaluable  preparation   to   the   study   of  American   history. 

(1)  Roman,  Britain  and  Saxon  England   (55  B.  C.-1066  A.  D.) 
Conquests:      Roman,    Saxon,    Danish,    and    Norman.      The    chief 

characters:      King  Arthur,   Alfred  the   Great,   and   Canute. 

(2)  England  under  the  Normans  and  Plantagenets    (1066-1485). 
The   following  wars   and   battles   led   to   territorial    expansion   of 

England,  or  set  forth  the  warlike  and  aggressive  spirit  of  the  people: 
The  War  with  Wales,  the  Scotch  Wars,  Bannockburn,  Falkirk,  The 
Hundred- Year  War,  Crecy,  Poitiers,  Agineourt,  The  War  of  the 
Roses,  Towton  and  Bosworth,  the  Crusades  with  causes  and  results. 
The  following  characters  are  intimately  associated  with  its  his- 
tory of  this  period:  William  the  Conqueror,  Gregory  VII.,  Henry 
II.,  Thomas  A'Becket,  Richard  the  Lion  Heart,  Edward  I.,  Edward 
III.,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  Wallace,  Bruce,  Joan  of  Arc,  Chaucer, 
and  Caxton. 

(3)  England  under  the   Tudors    (1485-1603). 

During  this  period  England  touches  America,  and  also  comes  in 
vital  contact  with  the  continent.  The  exploits  of  the  following  are 
to  be  studied:  The  Cabots,  Raleigh,  Drake,  and  Frobisher.  This 
also  is  the  period  of  the  Revival  of  Learning  and  of  the  Protestant 
Reformation.  Instrumental  in  bringing  about  these  changes  Were 
Colet,  Erasmus,  More,  Luther,  Henry  VIII.,  Wolsey,  Edward  VI., 
and  Elizabeth.  The  following  names  stand  for  the  literary  develop- 
ment of  the  latter  part  of  this  period:  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and 
Bacon. 

(4)  The  House  of  Stuart  (1603-1649). 

This  period  marks  the  beginning  of  the  colonial  and  commercial 
expansion  of  England  in  both  the  New  and  the  Old  World.  The 
East  India  Company,  and  the  struggle  with  Spain  and  Holland  for 
an  East  Indian  Empire;  the  formation  of  the  London  and  Plymouth 
Companies  with  settlements  in  the  New  World;  the  great  Puritan 
migration,  with  settlements  on  the  New  England  coast,  are  here  im- 
portant. The  Stuarts'  doctrine  of  divine  right  precipitated  the  strug- 
gle between  King  and  people,  the  chief  events  of  which  were  the 
granting  of  the  Petition  of  Right  (1628),  the  execution  in  church  and 
state  of  the  principle  of  "Thorough,"  the  Puritan  exodus,  and  the 
Civil  War  of  the  Long  Parliament.  Names  intimately  associated  with 
that  period  are  Cromwell,  Hampden,  Winthrop,  Carver,  Laud,  James 
I.,  and  Charles  I. 

(5)  Period  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate   (1649-1660). 
The  struggle  between  the  King  and  Parliament  ended  in  the  su- 
premacy of  Parliament  and  the  execution  of  the  King.     The  wars  of 
the  period  were  with  Ireland,    Scotland,  and   Holland. 

(6)  England  under  the  restored  Stuarts    (1660-1688). 

England  extended  her  control  in  the  New  World.  Proprietary 
grants  of  the  Carolinas,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  were  made  by 


62  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

the  Crown.  War  with  Holland  resulted  in  che  capture  of  New  Amster- 
dam. Close  relations  were  established  with  the  King  of  France  by 
the  secret  treaty  of  Dover.  Adherence  to  the  doctrine  of  divine  right 
cost  James  II.  his  throne  in  the  revolution  of  1688. 

(7)  The   Orange-Stuart  period    (1688-1714). 

England  was  closely  connected  with  the  continent.  The  War  of 
the  Palatinate,  called  King  William's  War  in  America,  closing  by  the 
treaty  of  Ryswick;  and  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  called 
Queen  Anne's  War  in  America,  closing  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  were 
waged  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power.  A  closer  union  with  Scot- 
land was  made  by  uniting  the  legislature  (1707). 

(8)  England  under  the  Hanoverians    (1764). 

The  Act  of  Succession  established  the  new  dynasty.  The  prin- 
cipal wars  of  this  period  were  waged  to  extend  or  to  defend  England's 
colonial  empire,  or  her  commercial  power.  The  Seven  Years'  War, 
or  French  and  Indian  War,  was  a  contest  for  empire  in  both  the 
New  and  the  Old  World;  the  Boer  War  was  a  contest  for  empire  in 
Africa.  In  the  American  Revolution,  England  lost  the  major  part 
of  her  possessions  in  the  New  World.  Fundamentally  the  Napoleonic 
War  was  commercial  on  the  part  of  England.  The  Crimean  War 
was  waged  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  Points  of 
especial  importance  are  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees;  Sepoy  Rebellion; 
Monroe  Doctrine;  War  of  1812  with  America;  abolition  of  slavery; 
the  Trent  affair;  Alabama  Claims.  The  chief  names  of  this  period 
are  Walpole,  Hastings,  Clive,  Wellington,  Peel,  Cobden,  William  Pitt 
the  younger  and  elder,  Disraeli  and  Gladstone.  Important  dates  are 
1660,  1688,  1689,  1707,  1800,  1815. 

SEVENTH    AND    EIGHTH    GRADES. 

HISTORY  AND   CIVICS. 

U.  S.  history  as  outlined  in  text  adopted. 


CIVICS  — FIFTH  GRADE.  63 


CIVICS. 


It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  is  training  pupils  for  good  citizenship.  This  does  not 
mean  a  study  of  the  mere  machinery  of  government;  every  political 
boss  or  ward  heeler  is  familiar  with  the  machinery  of  government. 
The  training  that  is  desirable  is  such  as  will  lead  to  a  greater  love 
for  one's  country,  consideration  for  the  rights  of  others,  respect  for 
law  because  it  is  law;  appreciation  of  the  benefits  of  organized  soci- 
ety and  good  government. 

No  text-book  is  necessary  for  the  competent  teacher.  Civics  should 
not  be  taught  as  a  separate  branch  below  the  High  School.  Geo- 
graphy, history,  current  events,  the  reading  lesson  furnish  ample  op- 
portunity for  instruction  in  civics.  The  following  suggestive  para- 
graph is  taken  from  the  Maryland  Course  of  Study: 

''For  those  who  are  afraid  to  undertake  this  idea  of  teaching 
civics  from  history,  from  life  in  and  about  the  school-room,  and  from 
public  events — the  convening  of  Congress,  the  passage  of  bills,  the' 
election  of  public  officers,  the  reception  of  a  German  Prince — as  re- 
corded from  day  to  day  in  the  press,  the  text-book  especially  prepared 
for  this  work  is  indispensible.  To  those  who  can  follow  the  plan  as 
herein  outlined,  such  a  book  is  most  excellent  for  reference;  but,  as 
in  every  other  subject,  the  prime  requisite  is  the  teacher.  Given  all 
the  books  and  a  dead  book-enforcer,  and  you  get  little;  given  no  books 
and  a  live,  sympathetic,  intelligent  co-worker,  and  you  will  get  life 
and  living.  He  must,  in  this  respect,  be  human,  intensely  human; 
must  know  that  there  are  many  things  the  child  doesn't  know,  and 
some  that  he  does ;  know,  and  keep  remembering,  there  are  many  things 
he  didn't  know  when  he  was  a  child;  know,  and  not  forget,  there  are 
some,  perhaps  many,  things  he  doesn't  know  even  now;  know  there 
is  a  difference  between  understanding  and  knowing;  know  that,  in 
days  gone  by,  there  were  people  and  countries  and  constitutions,  and 
that  in  all  of  these  ways  are  we  but  the  outgrowth  of  the  past;  know 
that,  where  our  constitution  touches  the  life  of  the  individual,  it  is 
easily  appreciated,  and  that  a  penny  or  a  canceled  postage  stamp 
can  do  more  to  arouse  interest  on  the  part  of  the  child  in  the  power 
of  Congress  than  a  dozen  explanatory  pages;  know  that,  as  the 
power  of  the  State  as  embraced  within  its  constitution,  cannot  in- 
terfere with  the  powers  of  the  United  States,  so  the  principles  upon 
which  the  constitution  of  the  latter  is  founded,  must  be  within  the 
bounds  of  the  "Higher  Law" — the  divine  law  of  justice  and  right. 
And,  knowing  all  this,  be  just  human  enough  to  make  the  child  want 
to  know  it  through  him,  and  god-like  enough  to  make  the  child  love  and 
respect  him  as  well  as  his  knowledge." 

FIFTH    GRADE. 

Pupils  use  note  books  in  this  and  succeeding  grades.  The  ability 
to  use  a  note  book  is  invaluable  to  the  student  throughout  his  entire 
school  life.  Definite  results  are  thus  obtained.  Make  a  simple  study 


64  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

of  taxes — what  they  are,  how  levied,  how  collected,  for  what  purposes 
they  are  spent.  Get  a  tax  receipt.  Study  the  various  items  on  same. 
Get  the  pupils  to  make  a  list  of  things  for  which  public  money  is  ex- 
pended. Why  are  these  expenditures  made?  Note  the  divisions  of 
government  as  national,  state,  county,  school  district,  road  district. 
Study  the  duties  of  school  officers  and  other  local  officers.  Investigate 
the  care  of  poor,  insane,  deaf,  incorrigible,  blind,  feeble-minded.  Ask 
for  names  of  persons  holding  district  or  county  offices.  Show  that 
every  citizen  owes  certain  duties  to  every  other  citizen  and  to  his 

country. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Study  the  county  officers,  their  duties,  how  chosen,  terms  of  of- 
fice, salaries,  etc.  A  visit  to  the  county  court  house  or  a  description 
of  the  county  offices  and  county  court  will  be  interesting.  Names 
of  the  various  officers.  Study  methods  of  nominations  and  elections. 
What  is  meant  by  the  Australian  ballot,  direct  primaries,  caucuses, 
conventions,  etc.?  Grasp  the  essential  difference  between  voluntary 
organizations  like  clubs,  lodges,  churches,  and  the  real  government. 
In  connection  with  the  geography  of  state,  study  the  organization  of 
state  government.  What  are  the  titles  of  the  offices  of  executive  de- 
partments? How  many  members  of  the  legislature?  Duties  of  su- 
preme and  superior  court  judges?  Location  of  educational  institu- 
tions? Parliamentary  practice,  rules  of  order,  etc. 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES. 

Correlate  civics  with  history.  Study  the  town  meeting  in  con- 
nection with  settlement  of  New  England.  Various  kinds  of  colonial 
government  in  connection  with  the  several  colonies.  Study  Declar- 
ation of  Independence  in  connection  with  events  of  that  period;  also 
Articles  of  Confederation,  Ordinance  of  1787.  Let  the  pupils  study 
the  Constitution  in  connection  with  the  Constitutional  Convention 
and  the  amendments  as  they  were  adopted.  Why  were  these  amend- 
ments made?  At  opportune  times,  study  such  topics  as  the  cabinet, 
the  spoils  system,  emancipation,  internal  improvements,  the  tariff, 
election  of  President,  veto,  impeachment,  treaties,  coinage,  declar- 
ation of  war,  etc.  Always  refer  to  the  provision  of  the  constitu- 
tion bearing  upon  these  questions.  Do  not  neglect  a  study  of  the 
great  social,  industrial  and  political  problems  of  the  day.  Systematic- 
ally study  current  events. 


NUMBER  AND  ARITHMETIC  — FIRST  GRADE.  65 


NUMBER   AND    ARITHMETIC 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

Keep  in  mind  the  object  of  the  work  and  the  amount  to  be  accom- 
plished each  half  year. 

Be  sure  the  child  has  the  idea  of  the  number  before  you  teach  the 
digit  representing  it. 

The  objective  work  is  to  give  meaning  to  the  process  and  should  be 
discarded  as  soon  as  it  has  served  its  purpose — subject  to  being  recalled. 

If  desirable,  change  the  order  of  the  outline. 

Make  all  work  intelligible  to  the  pupil. 

Use  the  equation  whenever  it  serves  a  good  purpose. 

Have  oral  work  throughout  the  entire  course. 

Strengthen  weak  points  by  timely,  incidental  if  practicable,  reviews. 

Introduce  the  reason  for  each  process  as  fast  as  the  advancement  of 
the  class  will  justify. 

In  drill  work — 1st,  accuracy;  2nd,  speed. 

In  all  written  work,  neatness  and  legibility. 

Introduce  new  terms  when  needed,  and  tell  that  which  the  pupil 
cannot  find  out  for  himself. 

The  development  of  arithmetic  is  effected  through  comparison  and 
measurements.  Hence  the  first  steps  should  be  objective,  and  as  much 
as  possible  judgment  inducing.  This  suggests  preliminary  work  in 
sense  training.  Sense  training  is  a  basis  for  all  lines  of  study,  but 
certain  phases  of  it  seem  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  introduction  of 
number  work. 

FIRST  GRADE  —  FIRST  SEMESTER. 

By  means  of  objects  (splints,  rectangles,  triangles,  cubes,  spheres, 
books,  etc.,)  make  plain  the  meaning  of  such  terms  as,  longer  than, 
shorter  than,  larger  than,  smaller  than,  broader  than,  narrower  than, 
heavier  than,  lighter  than,  thicker  than,  thinner  than,  as  large  as,  ( equal 
to  )  as  small  as,  as  long  as,  as  short  as,  as  thick  as,  as  thin  as,  as  heavy  as, 
as  light  as. 

Familiarize  children  with  inch  length,  foot  ruler,  yard  stick,  meter, 
square,  rectangle,  triangle,  circle,  cube,  oblong,  sphere,  semi-circle, 
hemi-sphere,  by  handling,  noting  and  comparing. 

Teach  numbers  to  10,  additively  and  subtractively,  first  presenting 
each  as  a  whole,  so  that  children  must  count  ( analyze )  to  ascertain  the 
number. 

To  illustrate,  suppose  the  number  to  be  presented  is  3.  The  splints 
may  be  placed  upon  one  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  have  a  oneness  in 


appearance,  as       /   ^^^^  or  they  may  be  in  a  pile  close  together, 

7 

,  or  three  books  in  a  pile.,  or  any  objects  of  uniform  size. 


—5 


66 


TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


The  child  then  in  answer  to  the  question  how  many,  separates  them 
with  the  eye  or  hand  (  counts  )  answers  one,  one  and  one,  two  and  one, 
or  three,  if  he  knows  the  number  name.  If  not,  give  it. 

Next  test  by  asking  children  to  show  3  objects,  take  three  steps,  hold 
up  the  hand  3  times,  count  3,  show  3  fingers,  make  3  marks,  etc. 

Now  ask,  2  cubes  and  1  cube  are  how  many  cubes?  2  boys  and  1  boy? 
1  marble,  1  marble  and  1  marble?  1  ball  and  2  balls?  If  a  boy  has  3 
apples  and  gives  2  to  his  mother,  how  many  has  he  left?  If  he  has  3 
pencils  and  gives  1  to  his  sister,  how  many  has  he  left?  Etc. 

Using  an  inch  length  as  a  unit  of  measurement,  have  children 
measure  lengths  not  exceeding  12  inches.  Using  a  two-inch  length  as  a 
unit  measure,  lengths  of  even  inches  to  20.  Similarly,  using  3,  4,  5  and 
6-inch  lengths  as  units,  measure  lengths  that  are  multiples  of  these, 
the  quotient  not  exceeding  10.  Also  use  the  foot  ruler,  yard  stick,  and 
meter  in  measuring  lengths  that  are  multiples  of  them.  Use  the  pint 
as  a  unit  and  measure  the  quart,  the  half  gallon,  and  the  gallon.  Use 
the  penny  and  the  nickle  in  making  change  to  10  cents.  Teach  the  days 
of  the  week  and  the  seasons  of  the  year.  Count  sides  of  triangles, 
squares,  and  other  polygons.  Find  perimeter  of  triangles  and  rect- 
angles, the  children  measuring  each  side  of  the  triangles  and  each  side 
of  squares  and  regtangles,  until  they  discover  that  the  opposite  sides 
are  equal,  putting  down  the  results  and  adding. 

Teach  these  signs,  +,  —  ,  =,  and  read  them  plus,  more  or  added  to: 
minus,  less  or  take  away;  equal,  as  many  as,  until  idea  is  grasped,  then 
use  only  terms  in  italics. 


Do  abstract  work  in  addition  in  these  two  forms, 


/» 


6+3  =  :  and 


subtraction  in  these,   6  —  3  = 


6 
—3 


Do  not  combine  addition  and  subtraction  in  written  form,  as  4 — 2+3= 
Working  with  splints,  have  the  children  find  in  how  many  ways  they 
can  make  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  and  write  the  ways  as  they  are 
worked  out,  as  1+1+1+1=4;  2+1+1=4;  2+2=4;  3+1=4,  etc. 
Perform  similar  operations  in  subtraction. 

FIRST  GRADE  —  SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Teach  the  $  and  review  some  work  of  first  semester  involving  it. 
Teach  these  signs:  Xi  -*-• 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


With  this  device,  using  splints  if  prac- 
ticable, teach  these  multiplicative  and  di- 
visive facts: 

(a]  (d)  (c) 

1X2=  2  -T-  2  =  i  of  2  = 

2X2=  4-^2  =  |  of  4  = 

3X2=  6-^2=  i  of  6  = 

4X2=  8  H-  2  =  i  of  8  = 

5X2=          10  H-  2  =  |  of  10  -- 


NUMBER  AND   ARITHMETIC  — FIRST  GRADE. 


67 


(d) 

M 

Develop  the  idea  of  i  by  means  of 

O       .       O    

iof  3  = 

rcular  card  board  or  paper,  creasing, 

5^-2  = 

iof  5  = 

itting   or  coloring,  before  teaching 

7--2  = 

|of  7  = 

),  (d)  and  (<?). 

Q        ,        O    

iof  9  = 

III 

With  this  device  teach  : 

III 

III 

(« 

(*) 

HI 

in 

1  V 

3  — 

o     .     o 

Ill 

III 

III 

2X 

3  = 

6-3  = 

3  V 

3  — 

9   •   3  — 

III     III 

III 

mi         4> 

3  = 

Develop  the  idea  af  £  (suggestions  concerning  |),  then  teach: 

i  of  3  =             £  of  9  =                  £  of  3  =-  £  of  9  = 

i  of  6  =              i  of  12  =                  f  of  6  =  f  of  12  = 

With  this  device  teach: 

(a)                           (3)  (c] 

1X4=                 4-^-4=  i  of  4  = 

2X4=                8  -f-  4  =  ±  of  8  = 

3X4=               12-^-4=  i  of  12  = 


Illl 


Illl 


Develop  the  idea  of 
gestions  for  •£.) 


before  doing  (c).     (  Sug- 


Compare numbers  learned  directly  and  inversely  as  follows: 

2  is  i  of  4,  and  4  is  2  times  2         2  is  i  of  6,  and  6  is  3  times  2 

3  is  i  of  6,  and  6  is  2  times  3         2  is  J  of  8,  and  8  is  4  times  2 

4  is  |  of  8,  and  8  is  2  times  4         3  is  i  of  9,  and  9  is  3  times  3 

3  is  i  of  12,  and  12  is  4  times  3 

Count  and  write  numbers  to  20  —  incidentally  beyond,  if  desirable  in 
connection  with  paging. 


Do  the  following  additions: 


H  +  U  - 
H  +  5*  = 
!*.+  •*  = 

2*  +  6i  = 
3*  +  8i  = 

4*  +  4*  = 


H  +  2|  = 
H  +  6*  = 

2*  +  6|  = 
3*  +  4i  = 


H  -1-  3*  == 

H  +  7|  = 
2|  +  Si  = 
2|  +  7i  = 
3*  +  5*  = 
4i  +  8*  = 


Repeat  after  dropping  fraction  from  first  number. 
Do  the  following  subtractions: 
2*  -  li  = 


H  -  H  = 

3*  -  2|  = 
71  -  2i  = 


5*  -  4|  = 

9*  —  4i  = 


41  —  H  = 
8i  -  H  = 

5|  -  21  = 
91  -  2^  = 


7i  -  61  = 


5*  -  H  = 
91  -  H  = 


8*  -  3*  == 

7i  —  4|  = 
7i  -  51  = 
8i  -  6|  = 
9*  —  8|  = 


68  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Do  the  same  subtractions  after  dropping  the  fraction  from  the  minu- 
end and  retaining  it  in  the  subtrahend;  reverse  the  process  by  dropping 
the  fraction  from  the  subtrahend  and  retaining  it  in  the  minuend. 

Add  2  to  all  numbers  of  first  order  (number  represented  by  1  figure). 

Drill  upon  these  additions: 

Add  3  to  all  numbers  of  first  order. 

Add  4  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  8. 

Add  5  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  7. 

Add  6  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  6. 

Add  7  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  5. 

Add  8  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  4. 

Add  9  to  all  numbers  to  and  including  3. 

SECOND  GRADE  — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Write,  read  and  analyze  numbers  to  500,  doing  enough  development 
to  give  a  working  idea  of  them.  Analyze  as  follows:  234  =  2  hundreds^ 
3  tens  and  4  units,  and  is  read  two  hundred  thirty- four. 

Add  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8  and  9  to  all  numbers  provided  the  sum  does  not 
exceed  100.  Examples: 

12  +  2  =      ;  22  +  2  =      ;  32  +  2  =      ;  42  -f  2  =      ,  etc 

13  +  2  =      ;  23  +  2  ==      ;  33  +  2  =      ;  43  +  2  =      ,  etc 
Teach  multiplication  and  division  tables  of  3's  and  4's  to  36  and  5's  to 

40,  using  device  suggested  for  first  year. 

Count  by  2's,  3's  and  4's  to  36;  by  5's  to  40.  In  counting  by  2's  begin 
with  2  and  then  with  1,  and  count  down  from  36  and  35;  by  3's  begin  with 

3,  2  and  1  and  count  down  from  36,  35  and  34;  by  4's  begin  with  4,  3,  2  and 
1  count  down  from  36,  35,  34  and  33;  by  5's  begin  with  5,  4,  3,  2  and  1  and 
count  down  from  40,  39,  38,  37  and  36. 

Do  direct  and  indirect  comparisons  between  \  and  5  times,  within 
limits  of  tables  learned,  as  2  is  \  of  10  and  10  is  two  times  5;  4  is  i  of  12 
and  12  is  three  times  4,  etc. 

Explain  prime  factor,  and  find  prime  factors  of  all  numbers  under  20. 

Drill  on  single  column  additions  — in  form  vertical  and  horizontal, 
emphasis  on  numbers  under  6,  as  34-2-j-3-|-4-f-l=  ,  etc. 

Use  10-cent  piece  in  connection  with  pieces  used  the  first  year  in 
making  change  to  25  cents. 

Teach  weeks  in  a  month;  months  in  a  year;  things  in  a  half  dozen, 
and  a  dozen;  inches  in  a  foot;  find  perimeters  of  triangles,  quadrilaterals 
and  other  polygons,  increasing  lengths  of  sides  to  conform  to  new  num- 
bers learned;  measure  aisles,  desks,  blackboads,  etc. 

Find  \  of  all  numbers  to  25;  \  and  f  of  3,  6,  9, 12, 15,  Is,  21  and  24;  i  of 

4,  8,  12,  16,  20  and  24;  \  of  5,  10,  15,  20  and  25. 

Do  much  concrete  work  in  problems  made  by  teacher  and  some  made 
by  pupils. 

Do  all  needed  review  work. 


NUMBER  AND   ARITHMETIC  —  THIRD  GRADE.  69 

SECOND  GRADE  —  SECOND  SEMESTER. 
Write,  read  and  analyze  numbers  to  1,000. 
Do  abstract  and  concrete  additions  and  subtractions,  without  carry, 

235    965 
ing,  sums  and  minuends  not  exceeding-  1,000,  as  421  ,  724 

656    241 

Count  by  2's,  3's,  4's  and  5's  to  60  and  down,  observing  former  direc- 
tions for  beginning. 

Do  the  multiplication  and  division  tables  through  the  5's  to  12  times, 
using  suggested  device  when  necessary. 

Teach  prime  factors  of  all  composite  numbers  to  25,  and  make  list  of 
prime  numbers  to  25. 

Do  much  drill  work  in  single  column  additions,  in  both  horizontal 
and  vertical  form,  using  all  numbers  expressed  by  one  figure. 

Do  concrete  work  involving  the  pint,  quart  and  gallon;  the  pound, 
the  i  pound  and  the  i  pound;  making  change  to  50  cents;  time  of  day 
by  the  clock,  fixing  first  the  hour  of  12,  then  1,  then  4,  then  9,  then 
other  hours,  then  half  hours,  etc.  (incidentally)  ;  dimensions  of  room; 
perimeters  of  triangles,  quadrilaterals  and  other  polygons,  the  lengths 
of  sides  conforming  to  numbers  learned;  comparisons  of  lines,  triangles, 
quadrilaterals,  cubes,  parallelepipeds  and  prisms. 

Do  much  concrete  work  in  applied  problems,  that  come  within  their 
comprehension. 

Develop  objectively  f,  f,  f,  and  f  ;  show  that  f  equal  £. 

Compare  numbers  between  |  and  5  times,  within  limits  of  "tables 
learned. 

Teach  |  of  all  numbers  to  60;  £  and  £  of  3,  6,  9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  24,  27,  30, 
33  and  36  ;  i  and  f  of  4,  8,  12,  16,  20,  24,  28,  32,  36,  40,  44  and  48;  |,  f  ,  f 
and  f  of  5,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30,  35,  40,  45,  50,  55  and  60. 

Keep  a  record  of  the  day  of  the  week  and  date  of  the  month. 

Do  such  as  3X2  dimes  +  2  cents  =  6  dimes  and  2  cents  =  62  cents. 

3X2  dimes  -f-  2  nickels  =  6  dimes  and  2  nickels  =  70  cents. 
3X2  quarts  -f  1  pint  =  6  quarts  and  1  pint  =  13  pints. 
3X2  weeks  -f  3  days  =  6  weeks  and  3  days  —  45  days. 

Vary  multiplier.     Review. 

THIRD  GRADE  —  FIRST  SEMESTER. 
Read,  write  and  analyze  numbers  to  5,000. 

Do  addition  and  subtraction  with  carrying,  sums  and  minuends  not 
exceeeding  5,000. 

9  29 

Children  are  familiar  with_8^  then  they  readily  see  _8^     Call  atten- 

TT  "37" 

tion  to  the  1  ten  of  the  sum  of  9  and  8  being  added  to  the  2  tens.     Then 

123     observe  this  form:   Eight,  ten,  thirteen  (write  the  3  units  and 

462     count  the  1  ten  in  ten's  column);    three,  six,  twelve,  fourteen 

(write  the  4  tens);  six,  seven,  eleven,  twelve  (write  the  2  hun- 


dreds  and  the  1  thousand. 


70  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

In  subtraction  proceed  as  follows: 

523       33        23        13  Eight  from  13  leaves  5,  eight  from  23  leaves 

246  8       15^  eight  from  33  leaves  25,  etc.,  calling  atten- 

277  25  15  5  tion  to  the  taking  1  ten  with  the  units  each 
time.  Then  six  from  13  leaves  7,  four  from  11  leaves  7  and  two  from  4 
leaves  2.  ( Other  methods  may  be  as  good  as  this,  but  little  children 
should  know  but  one.) 

Count  by  2's,  3's,  4's  and  5's  to  12  times;  by  6's  to  6  times;  by  7's  to  5 
times;  by  10's  to  10  times;  by  11 's  to  9  times. 

Even  and  odd  numbers  explained  in  connection  with  counting  by  2's. 

Multiplication  and  division  tables  in  accord  with  the  counting  above. 

Short  division  without  carrying,  as: 
2)46^          2)82^          2)486,         3)693,         3)369,         4)48^       etc. 

Do  direct  and  inverse  comparison  within  the  limits  of  the  tables 
learned. 

Squares  to  36  and  square  roots  of  same.  Q  With  paper  or  card 
board  squares,  each  edge  of  which  is  1  inch  (tell  children  such  is  called 
a  square  inch,  and  the  No.  1  called  a  square),  have  them  find  by  placing 
small  squares  together  the  next  square  (  2  ?  No;  3  ?  No;  4  ?  Yes).  Four 
small  squares  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  make  a  larger  square.  Can  5 
small  ones?  6?  7?  8?  9?  etc.  ( They  may  discover  the  law.)  Concrete 
work  in  making  change  to  $5;  in  finding  number  of  inch  cubes  in  ob- 
longs and  cubes;  the  number  of  square  feet  in  a  square  yard. 

Develop  the  idea  of  |,  }  and  |  objectively,  and  do  work  in  part  taking. 

Add  halves,  as:  £  +  fc  +  £  +  f+ 1  =  !  =4. 

Also  thirds,  as  $  +  f +  f  +  §  +  f ,  etc. 

Also  fourths  and  fifths  in  a  similar  way. 

Do  corresponding  work  from  text-book  adopted,  for  drill  application 
and  reinforcement. 

THIRD  GRADE  — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Read,  write  and  analyze  numbers  to  10,000. 

Continue  practice  in  addition  and  subtraction,  sums  and  minuends 
•not  exceeding  10,000. 

Count  by  2's,  3's,  4's to  12's,  beginning  with  1,  2,  3,  4 to  12. 

Do  multiplication  and  division  tables  through  the  12's.  Do  multipli- 
cation with  carrying,  using  one-figure  multiplier  until  the  process  is 
learned,  then  10, 11  and  12  as  one-figure  multiplier,  then  two  figures,  the 
product  not  exceeding  10,000. 

Do  direct  and  inverse  comparisons  within  the  limits  of  tables  and 
fractional  parts  learned. 

Find  squares  to  144  and  corresponding  square  roots.  Make  list  of 
squares  learned. 

Concrete  work  in  making  change  to  $10;  in  comparing  lines;  in  find- 
ing perimeters  of  triangles  and  quadrilaterals,  and  comparing  them;  in 
finding  number  posts  necessary  to  build  fence  around  lots,  and  number 
of  boards  of  stated  lengths  and  number  boards  in  height  necessary  to 


NUMBER  AND  ARITHMETIC  —  FOURTH  GRADE.          71 

build  same;  vary  the  length  of  boards,  with  reference  to  number  feet 
posts  are  apart,  and  the  number  of  boards  in  height;  in  finding-  the 
number  of  square  inches  in  square  feet;  in  work  in  linear  measure  and 
avoirdupois  weight. 

Develop  $,  J$,  -^  and  TV,  and  corresponding  part  taken  within  limits 
of  tables. 


Do 

such  as: 

21 

X2 

31 

X2 

41 

x§ 

51 
X2 

61 
X2 

x|* 

31 

X3 

41 
X3 

51 
X3 

61 

X3 

71 
X3 

81 
X3 

xf 

2i 
X4 

8t 

X4 

X4 

X4 

61 

X4 

etc.; 

X5° 

21 

X5 

X55 

X55 

X5T 

etc,; 

X6° 

3? 
X6 

4 

X6 

X66 

6i 

X6 

7i 
X6 

etc. 

Also  such  as: 

104- 

o   . 

13^-3  = 

;  14  -r- 

4=      ; 

16  -f-  5  = 

21  -j-  4  =      ;  25  -i-  6  =       ;  29  -f-  6  =      ,  etc. 

Do  much  abstract  drill  work  in  the  multiplication  tables.  These 
tables  should  be  known  by  the  end  of  the  third  year. 

Do  corresponding  work  of  text-book  adopted. 

FOURTH  GRADE  — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Write,  read  and  analyze  numbers  to  1,000,000. 

Continue  practice  in  concrete  abstract  additions  and  subtractions, 
developing  as  much  accuracy  and  speed  as  possible. 

Do  short  division  with  carrying,  using  2  as  a  divisor  until  the  process 
is  grasped.  Then  use  5,  10,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9,  11  and  12  as  divisors.  This 
work  demands  proficiency  in  the  multiplication  tables,  hence  whenever 
necessary  review  and  drill  on  tables. 

Continue  abstract  and  concrete  work  in  multiplication,  multiplier 
not  exceeding  three  figures. 

Continue  comparing  numbers  directly  and  inversely,  and  introduce 
aliquot  parts  as  follows:  Multiply  224  by  5,  and  divide  2240  by  2.  Com- 
pare results.  Which  is  easier?  Five  is  1  of  10,  and  10  is  2  times  5.  Use 
this  knowledge  to  multiply  by  21  (21  is  i  of  10);  by  31  (31  is  1  of  10);  by 
121  (121  is  1  of  100);  by  25  (25  is  i  of  100);  by  50  (50  is  1  of  100). 

In  connection  with  work  in  factoring,  teach  how  to  determine  whether 
a  number  is  divisible  by  2,  5  or  10  without  a  remainder.  Have  class 
make  a  list  of  all  prime  numbers  to  30. 

Teach  squares  to  256  and  square  roots  of  same,  extending  list  of 
squares. 

Do  little  business  problems  requiring  the  making  of  change,  and 
those  involving  loss  and  gain.  Continue  work  of  finding  number  posts 
necessary  to  build  fences  around  lots,  and  the  number  of  boards,  and 
cost  at  so  much  a  piece;  also  in  finding  number  inch  squares  in  rect- 


72  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

angles,  and  inch  cubes  in  cubes  and  oblongs.  Do  practical  problems  in- 
volving rents,  and  others  of  a  local  nature.  Do  corresponding  work  in 
text-book  adopted. 

FOURTH  GRADE  — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Teach  long  division,  using  13  as  a  divisor,  and  graded  diviends,  until 
the  process  is  learned,  as:  13)156  13)169  13)273  13)286  etc. 
When  the  process  is  learned,  then  use  as  divisors  21,  31,  41,  51,  61,  71,  81, 

91;  22,  32, 92;  23,  33, 93;  14,  24,  34 94,  etc.  ( This  is  to 

enable  the  pupil  to  gradually  grow  into  making  the  proper  allowance 
for  the  unit  figure  of  the  divisor  in  estimating  the  quotient  figure.) 

Do  not  permit  pupils  to  perform  work  by  the  long  process  with  a  di- 
visor less  than  13. 

Find  squares  to  400  and  corresponding  square  roots. 

Have  pupils  extend  their  list  of  prime  numbers  to  50. 

Teach  how  to  determine  whether  a  number  is  divisible  by  3  without 
a  remainder. 

Do  simple  problems  in  wood  measurement  and  finding  cost  by  the 
cord. 

Develop  the  idea  of  percentage,  and  apply  it  to  little  problems  in  in- 
terest for  1,  2,  3  or  4  years. 

Show  a  board  foot  to  the  class,  have  them  measure  it,  and  then  find 
number  board  feet  in  boards  1  foot  wide  and  1  inch  thick  and  8, 10, 12, 14, 
16,  18  or  20  feet  long;  then  boards  1  foot  wide,  2  inches  thick  and  same 
lengths;  then  6  inches  wide,  2  inches  thick  and  same  lengths;  then  6 
inches  wide,  1  inch  thick  and  same  lengths.  Do  practical  problems  per- 
taining to  local  vocations. 

Teach  decimals  to  two  places  in  addition  and  subtraction. 

Do  corresponding  work  in  text  adopted. 

FIFTH  GRADE  — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Add  halves  and  fourths,  using  circular  card  board  or  paper  and  show- 
ing that  to  add  halves  and  fourths  the  halves  must  be 
made  into  fourths.  Use  same  device  for  other  frac- 
tions. Then  add  halves  and  sixths;  halves  and  eighths; 
halves  and  tenths;  halves  and  twelfths;  thirds  and 
sixths;  thirds  and  ninths;  thirds  and  twelfths;  fourths 
•and  eighths;  fourths  and  twefths;  fifths  and  tenths; 
sixths  and  twelfths. 

Next  add  halves  and  thirds  (both  must  now  be  changed  into  sixths); 
halves  and  fifths;  halves  and  sevenths;  thirds  and  fourths;  thirds  and 
fifths;  fourths  and  fifths.  Call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  differ- 
ence of  these  two  classes. 

Next  add  fourths  and  sixths;  sixths  and  eighths;  sixths  and  ninths. 

Next  develop  the  idea  of  multiple,  common  multiple  and  least  com- 
mon multiple.  It  may  be  done  as  follows: 

Three  inches. 


Two  inches. 


NUMBER  AND   ARITHMETIC  —  FIFTH  GRADE.  73 

What  lengths  can  be  measured  by  a  two-inch  line?  A.ns.  2,  4,  6,  8,  10, 
12,  14,  16  inches,  etc.  These  lengths  are  called  multiples  of  a  two-inch 
length.  Now  tell  me  some  multiples  of  a  three-inch  length.  Ans.  3,  6, 
9,  12,  15,  18  inches,  etc.  Can  you  tell  some  lengths  that  are  multiples  of 
both  a  two-inch  and  a  three-inch  length  ?  Ans.  6,  12,  18  inches,  etc. 
These  lengths  are  called  common  multiples  of  2  inches  and  3  inches, 
You  see  the  shortest  one  of  these  lengths  is  6  inches,  and  it  is  called  the 
least  common  multiple  of  2  inches  and  3  inches. 

Drill  on  numbers  under  20  (omitting  largest  prime  numbers)  until 
class  can  readily  find  least  common  multiples,  then  again  take  up  the 
last  group  of  fractions  added  and  show  the  use  of  L.  C.  M.  in  that  con- 
nection. 

Treat  subtraction  of  fractions  in  a  similar  manner. 

Reduce  fractions  to  lower  and  higher  terms  (latter  involved  in  find- 
ing common  denominator). 

Involve  these  cases  in  business  problems,  thus  increasing  drill  and 
application,  chiefly  with  mixed  numbers. 

Also  do  work  with  decimal  fractions  involving  tenths,  hundredths 
and  thousandths,  abstractly  and  concretely. 

Continue  work  in  interest,  making  the  time  years  and  months.  (Use 
aliquot  parts  for  finding  interest  for  2,  3,  4,  6,  8  and  9  months.) 

Continue  work  in  lumber  measurement  and  include  flooring  1x4  and 
even  lengths,  and  2x4's.  Teach  bill  making.  Put  it  into  practice  in 
connection  with  problems  involving  the  selling  of  lumber,  groceries, 
hardware,  implements,  fruits,  berries  and  farm  products,  etc. 

Do  corresponding  work  of  adopted  text. 

FIFTH  GRADE  — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Teach  multiplication  of  common  fractions,  illustrating  the  process 
objectively,  and  using  no  denominator  greater  than  20.  Also  teach 
multiplication  of  mixed  numbers  by  mixed  numbers,  changing  to 
improper  fractions.  Drill  in  abstract  numbers.  Apply  to  local  prob- 
lems involving  mixed  numbers. 

Teach  division  of  common  fractions.  Suggestive  method.  1-f-f =f-j- 
|=3  thirds-i-2  thirds=f .  Compare  the  form  of  the  quotient  with  that 
of  the  divisor.  ]-7-f=£-^-f=4-f-3=f.  Compare  quotient  and  divisor 
again.  By  this  process  lead  class  to  see  that  in  order  to  divide  1  by  a 
fraction,  it  is  necessary  only  to  invert  the  terms  of  the  divisor.  Next 
drill  orally  as  follows:  I-H$=?  l-f-f=?  l-*-|=?  1 -*-$=?  1-*-$=?  etc. 

The  next  step  is  natural  and  easy.  Since  j-  is  contained  in  1  f  times, 
it  is  contained  in  2,  2  times  f  times  or  3  times;  in  3,  3  times  f  times;  in 
f,  f  of  f  times;  etc. 

Now  drill  abstractly,  and  relate  clearly  multiplication  and  division 
of  fractions. 

Apply  Jto  problems  involving  mixed  numbers. 

Teach  multiplication  and  division  of  decimals  using  3  decimal  figures 
and  deducing  rule  for  same  from  common  form. 

Make  a  drawing  of  a  section  of  land;  i  section;  I  section;  an  80;  a  40. 


74  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

Find  the  number  of  rods  in  perimeter  of  each,  and  cost  of  fencing  at 
local  prices,  using:  rails,  boards,  poles  or  wire.  Note  the  shape  of  the 
different  parts;  find  cost  of  each  at  so  much  per  acre,  using  aliquot  parts; 
buy  and  sell,  and  calculate  loss  or  gain;  plant  to  crops  (imagination), 
cultivate,  harvest,  sell,  calculating  all  expenses,  and  find  loss  or  gain. 
Given  number  of  acres  in  a  field  and  the  length  in  rods,  find  the  width 
in  rods. 


Find  area  of  triangles 
by  relating  them  to  rect- 
angles. 


Review  everything  necessary,  especially  in  bill-making. 
Do  corresponding  work  of  text-book  adopted. 

SIXTH  GRADE  — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  grammar  school  book  the  pupils  should 
obtain  a  firmer  grasp  of  all  subjects,  see  more  of  the  reason  for  the 
processes,  and  grasp  a  little  of  the  logic  of  the  subject.  A  general 
review  is  provided  for  in  the  following  of  the  arrangement  of  most  any 
good  text  by  beginning  at  the  first. 

Do  all  the  work  of  the  adopted  text  including  the  reading  and  writing 
of  numbers,  by  words,  figures  and  letters,  and  the  four  fundamentals, 
noting  underlying  principles  in  all  processes  and  supplementing  the 
work  of  the  book  when  needful.  It  is  important  that  pupils  learn  to 
formulate  principles.  It  tends  to  make  them  clearer. 

Drill  upon  valuable  short  cuts  in  multiplication  and  division.  For 
example,  to  multiply  by  10  or  some  power  of  10;  by  12$;  by  25;  by  37$;  by 
50;  by  62$;  by  75;  by  87$;  by  125;  by  16|;  by  33$;  by  66£;  by  83$;  by  333$; 
by  98,  99,  198,  199,  998,  999,  etc.,  and  the  reversing  of  some  of  these 
processes  in  division. 

Teach  the  process  of  dividing  by  the  factors  of  the  divisor,  using  the 
short    division,   and  then   finding    the    remainder    from    the    partial 
remainders.     To  illustrate:    46725-^-42(2X3X7) 
2 )  46725 

3  )  23362 1  1  Bring  out  clearly  the    two-fold 

7  )  7787 1: 2  nature  of  division.      ( Division   and 

H12. 3....  .18^  Partition.) 

21 

Teach  G.  C.  D.  by  factoring  ( if  you  prefer  to  use  the  Euclidian 
method,  also,  do  not  attempt  explanation.)  Give  in  addition  to  the 
questions  in  the  book,  if  necessary,  examples  that  will  illustrate  the 
uses  of  the  subject.  ( Practice  in  factoring  numbers,  reducing  large 
fractions  of  the  common  form  to  lowest  terms,  and  finding  the  L.  C.  M.) 
Do  L.  C.  M.,  going  deeper  into  the  subject  than  in  former  grade  and 
emphasizing  its  use. 

Classify  fractions  from  both  the  standpoint  of  form  and  of  use. 
Drill  in  all  practical  reductions. 


NUMBER  AND  ARITHMETIC —  SEVENTH  GRADE.         75 

Do  the  fundamentals  in  common  fractions,  emphasizing  the  prin- 
ciples, and  endeavoring  to  have  every  question  done  intelligently. 

SIXTH  GRADE  —  SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Do  the  work  of  the  book  in  the  reduction  and  four  fundamentals  of 
decimals,  emphasizing  the  principles  and  reasons  and  supplementing 
the  work  when  needful.  Do  applied  problems  involving  U.  S.  money, 
whether  in  book  or  not. 

Do  compound  denominate  numbers,  giving  most  attention  to 
Avoirdupois  weight,  linear,  square,  land,  cubic,  .and  liquid  measure, 
and  time  measurement,  and  some  attention  to  Troy  and  apothecary's 
weight,  and  dry,  paper,  and  circular  measure. 

In  doing  denominate  numbers  reduce  up  and  down,  involve  the 
four  fundamentals  and  apply  to  practical  problems. 

In  longitude  and  time  show  the  correspondence  between  time  and 
distance;  locate  and  explain  the  convenience  of  the  day  line;  explain 
standard  (R.  R.)  time,  illustrating  hour  belts;  and  do  orally  such 
questions  as  these:  When  noon  in  E.  belt,  what  is  the  time  in  R.  Mt. 
belt?  It  is  10  o'clock  a.  m.  here;  I  am  thinking  of  a  place  where  it  is 
8  o'clock  a.  m.  Where  is  it?  Select  other  work  from  book. 

SEVENTH  GRADE  —  FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Commence  percentage.  Review  work  in  common  and  decimal  frac- 
tions, involving  the  principles  of  percentage.  To  illustrate:  A  offers 
B  i  of  a  debt  if  he  will  collect  it.  If  the  debt  amounts  to  $100  how  much 
will  B  get?  If  to  $80?  If  to  $60?  If  to  $35?  If  to  $18?  if  to  $150? 
How  many  hundredths  does  B  get?  Express  it  in  the  form  of  a  common 
and  a  decimal  fraction.  Now  introduce  sign  %  and  drill  on  the  three 
ways  of  expressing  it,  as,  5  %  =^=^=.05;  i%=fffor=='005;  50%=i=.5. 

Do  problems  of  book.  Apply  to  commission  business,  loss  and  gain, 
and  trade  discount.  Review  and  do  more  work  in  interest,  making  free 
use  of  aliquoit  parts  in  obtaining  the  rate  or  the  interest.  Do  not 
become  the  servant  of  a  method.  Make  method  serve  you. 

Teach  the  writing  of  different  kinds  of  notes,  receipts  and  checks, 
emphasizing  the  salient  points.  Have  pupils  write  notes,  involve 
partial  payments  (not  more  than  2)  and  settle  same.  Do  work  of  book. 
Also  in  fire  and  life  insurance. 

SEVENTH  GRADE  — SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Do  work  in  the  following  subjects:  Measurements,  including  carpet- 
ing, plastering,  shingling,  lumber  in  sidewalks,  on  walls  of  houses;  a 
review  of  land  measurement;  the  mensuration  of  cubes,  oblongs  (  bins  ), 
and  circles;  ratio  and  proportion;  involution  and  evolution  (only  square 
root ) ;  and  some  work  in  formal  analysis. 

In  carpeting  require  pupils  to  make  diagram  of  room  and  mark  strips 
until  process  in  clear.  Make  clear  allowance  for  matching  and  turning 
under.  In  connection  with  shingling  study  roof  of  schoolhouse  or  some 
other  building.  Likewise  in  calculating  lumber  used  for  siding. 


76  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

In  ratio  find  the  old  friend   in  direct  and   inverse  comparison  of 
numbers.     Use  proportion  in  measuring  the  height  of  houses,  trees,  etc. 
from  ratio  of  object  to  shadow. 

In  teaching  involution  use  this  process: 

( 36  )2=(  30+6  )2=(  30+6 )  ( 30+6  )=30~2+2X30X6+62. 
When  pupils  are  sufficiently  familiar  with  process  substitute  t-\-u  for 
tens  and  units,  and  use  /2+2^+w2. 

Use  this  form  for  discovering  the  square  root. 

Do  some  work  in  formal  analysis,  supplementing  the  text  when 
needful. 

EIGHTH  GRADE  — FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Do  work  in  the  following  subjects:  Metric  system,  bank  discount, 
duties,  taxes,  partnership,  exchange,  mensuration  of  prisms,  pyramids, 
cylinders,  cones  and  spheres,  and  formal  analysis. 

In  teaching  the  metric  system,  have  the  meter,  the  liter  and  the 
gram  (  make  them  if  necessary  )  and  have  pupils  make  them.  Mark 
permanently  a  square  meter  on  the  floor,  and  the  are  on  the  play  ground 
or  lawn. 

In  bank  discount  do  not  consider  days  of  grace,  there  being  none  in 
our  state. 

Explain  the  object  of  duties  and  taxes  and  in  the  latter  case  make 
plain  the  manner  in  which  the  commissioners  determine  the  rate. 

In  mensuration  relate  prisms  to  oblongs;  pyramids  to  prisms;  cylin- 
ders to  circles;  cones  to  cylinders;  the  surface  of  spheres  to  circles;  the 
volumes  of  spheres  to  pyramids.  Verify  these  relations  by  actual 
measurement  if  possible.  (  Hollow  and  tin  made.) 

EIGHTH  GRADE  — SECOND  SEMESNER. 

During  this  semester  do  all  needed  review  work,  giving  special 
attention  to  business  forms,  such  as  the  making  of  bills  and  receipting 
them;  the  writing  of  notes  (  different  forms:  time  notes,  demand  notes, 
negotiable  notes,  non-negotiable  notes,  interest-bearing  notes,  non- 
interest-bearing  notes,  individual  notes,  joint  notes,  etc.),  checks  and 
drafts,  forms  for  orders,  business  letters,  and  the  keeping  of  cash 
accounts. 

Require  work  in  these  forms  to  be  done  with  pen  and  ink,  insisting 
upon  neatness  and  legibility.  In  bill  making  put  the  pupils  in  the 
position  of  the  farmer,  the  lumberman,  the  groceryman,  the  general 
merchant,  the  truck  gardener,  the  coal  dealer,  the  commission  merchant. 

When  practicable,  do  old  8th  grade  examination  questions  and 
teachers'  examination  questions. 

In  problem  doing,  go  outside  text  books  and  do  such  local  business 
problems  as  arise  in  the  community  in  which  you  teach. 

Endeavor  to  give  the  class  a  connected  idea  of  the  processes  of 
Arithmetic. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  77 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


Section  65  of  the  Code  of  Public  Instruction,  says:  "Instruction 
shall  be  given  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  stimulants  and  narcotics  on  the  human  system." 
Section  162  provides  a  penalty  in  case  of  violation. 

EQUIPMENT    FOR    TEACHING    THE    SUBJECT. 

The  teacher  should  believe  in  the  work;  should  show  the  class 
that  she  considers  the  once-a-week  oral  lesson  in  hygiene  as  import- 
ant as  any  period  of  the  week.  She  should  prepare  for  the  recita- 
tion by  assigning  points  to  be  looked  up,  illustrations  to  be  placed 
upon  the  board,  items  of  interest  to  be  given.  She  should  prepare 
at  least  one  interesting  topic  herself  and  give  it  as  her  contribution 
to  the  exercise.  The  teacher  must  not  dwaddle  over  the  work  in 
physiology  or  hygiene.  Make  it  a  point  to  accomplish  something  in 
each  exercise,  and  last  of  all  make  it  interesting. 

Some  illustrative  material  should  be  provided,  usually  by  the 
teacher.  If  the  school  has  a  microscope  it  should  be  made  use  of 
often.  If  they  have  not  it  might  be  well  to  secure  funds  with  which 
to  buy  one.  A  small  hand  magnifying  glass  is  of  great  value  and 
costs  little.  A  chart  for  testing  the  eyes  ought  to  be  provided  for 
every  school.  A  few  specimens  of  skulls  of  domestic  animals,  bones 
of  various  shapes,  also  sectioned  bones,  teeth,  scales  of  fish,  feathers, 
shells  of  clams,  etc.,  should  be  included.  There  should  be  two  or  three 
glass  dishes,  a  fruit  jar,  a  couple  of  feet  of  small  rubber  tubing,  some 
glass  tubing,  an  alcohol  lamp.  The  few  chemicals  used  in  the  experi- 
ments may  be  obtained  from  the  nearest  drug  store.  The  depart- 
ments of  biology  in  the  state  institutions  are  willing  to  give  help. 
Teachers  should  feel  free  to  call  upon  them. 

There  should  be  a  scrap  book  kept  by  the  class,  into  which  items 
passed  upon  by  the  teacher  may  be  placed.  Have  it  indexed.  Do  not 
hesitate  to  include  a  well-executed  drawing  by  members  of  the  class, 
athletic  records,  etc.  Such  a  book  is  a  source  of  great  enthusiasm. 
Be  sure  to  mark  modestly  on  each  gift  the  giver's  name.  The 
teacher  will  find  it  profitable  to  keep  such  a  scrap  book  for  herself. 
Certainly  she  should  keep  a  note  book  on  the  subject.  Have  it  in- 
dexed also. 

Try  to  get  other  texts  than  the  one  in  use.  Discarded  books  will 
frequently  be  contributed.  Each  book  has  some  special  illustration, 
chart,  table  or  notes  of  use.  Send  to  the  various  publishers  for 
their  "Guides"  or  "How  to  Teach"  the  subject.  These  are  always 
cheerfully  sent  to  teachers.  Ginn  &  Co.,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Mac- 
millan  Co.,  American  Book  Co.,  publish  such  guides. 


78  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

others,  and  (3)  interest  in  public  sanitation.  It  is  difficult,  very  dif- 
ficult, to  impart  the  facts  of  hygiene  and  physiology  to  young  child- 
ren. They  get  so  many  erroneous  ideas.  One  can  usually  recall 
one's  own  misconceptions  of  the  functions  of  the  body.  Be  always 
on  the  lookout  to  correct  wrong  impressions.  The  teacher  should  en- 
deavor to  know  as  much  as  possible  of  the  approved  data  of  the 
subject,  for  even  teachers  have  wrong  impressions  about  this  subject. 
Instruction  in  the  first  five  grades  will  be  oral,  fifteen  minutes 
once  a  week.  In  the  sixth  grade  the  pupils  must  be  provided  with 
a  text-book,  largely  devoted  to  hygiene.  In  the  seventh  grade  there 
must  be  one  recitation  each  week.  It  should  be  largely  a  review  of 
the  sixth  grade  work  with  additional  illustration.  In  the  eighth 
grade  the  subject  is  one  of  the  important  studies,  should  be  taught 
each  school  day,  and  given  as  much  time  as  any  one  subject  as  given 
in  the  programme.  The  outline  here  does  not  apply  to  a  particular 
book,  since  there  are  a  number  of  different  texts  in  use  in  the  State. 
The  order  of  topic  here  given  is  one  order;  the  book  in  use  may  have 
another  equally  good  order.  Follow  the  book  always.  However,  the 
work  should  begin  with  some,  though  not  final,  study  of  the  cell. 

THE   ORAL   WORK. 

The  fundamental  principle  in  the  oral  work  is  to  establish  habits 
of  personal  cleanliness — clean  faces,  hands,  teeth,  ears,  bodies,  so  far 
as  possible  clean  clothes,  clean  books,  clean  desks  and  though  not  of 
this  subject,  clean  hearts  and  clean  lives. 

After  cleanliness  has  been  impressen,  take  up  as  the  second  im- 
portant principle,  physical  exercise.  The  play  and  the  games  be- 
long properly  to  this  division  of  school  work.  The  teacher  should 
take  a  part  in  the  games;  it  is  profitable  to  her  and  to  the  pupils. 
She  should  be  ready  to  suggest  games,  and  to  give  aid  in  their  per- 
formance. Play  is  much  more  important  as  a  health  producer  than 
any  kind  of  calisthenics.  The  latter,  however,  has  a  place.  This  out- 
line can  not  include  a  discussion  of  what  exercises  are  best,  but  some 
simple  set  of  exercises  which  relieves  the  cramp  of  seat  work,  quick- 
ens the  circulation,  allows  additional  ventilation,  and  has  some  life 
and  interest  will  suffice.  There  should  be  games  for  physical  exer- 
cise, as  the  various  running  games ;  there  should  be  games  of  skill, 
as  quoits.  Ball  games  are  always  in  order  for  the  older  pupils,  both 
boys  and  girls. 

After  cleanliness  and  games,  the  object  is  to  teach  consideration 
for  others  through  a  knowledge  of  the  effect  of  disease.  There  are 
plenty  of  opportunities  to  relieve  headache,  tooth-ache,  to  remove 
the  cinder  from  the  eye,  to  help  the  crippled  or  backward  ones.  An- 
other part  of  this  part  of  the  work  is  to  teach  the  older  ones  what  to 
do  in  emergencies,  to  give  first  aid  to  the  injured. 

After  instruction  in  cleanliness,  games,  and  comfort  and  first  aid 
work,  comes  instruction  in  the  preparation  and  use  of  food.  Hygiene 
lessons  introduce  the  average  child  to  the  subject  of  pure  food.  The 


PHYSIOLOGY.  79 


The  purpose  of  the  work  in  lower  grades  is  to  establish  habits  of 
(1)  cleanliness,  (2)  consideration  for  the  health  and  comfort  of 
fifth  and  last  consideration  in  the  oral  work  is  instruction  in  the  na- 
ture and  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics.  The  five  phases  of  the 
subject  must  be  carried  on  simultaneously,  more  or  less,  but  in  the 
order  of  presentation  and  emphasis,  follow  the  order  here  given. 
First,  a  clean  child,  then  an  active  child;  after  that,  a  child  thought- 
ful for  physical  comfort  of  others,  then  a  child  careful  about  what  he 
takes  into  his  body,  and  last  a  pure  child. 

Teach  the  children  what  to  do  in  case  of  accident,  how  to  make 
a  litter,  how  to  put  on  a  bandage  or  a  splint,  how  to  use  water  and 
mud  in  allaying  a  swelling  from  broken  limbs,  how  to  remove  foreign 
matter  from  the  eye,  how  to  put  out  clothes  on  fire,  what  to  give  for 
poison,  how  to  produce  vomiting,  how  to  treat  a  drowning  person. 
These  things  are  much  more  important  than  fire  drills  without,  how- 
ever disparaging  the  latter. 

Find  out  all  you  can  about  pure  food  and  the  laws  of  food  produc- 
tion in  this  State;  discuss  meat  inspection,  milk  inspection,  the  de- 
vices used  by  unscrupulous  persons  to  preserve  foods  by  means  of 
injurious  chemicals.  Discuss  factory  inspection  and  employment  of 
children  in  such  places.  Get  into  touch  with  the  local  board  of  health, 
and  find  what  efforts  are  being  made  to  enforce  laws  in  reference  to 
sanitation.  -Get  reports  from  the  city  and  state  boards  of  health; 
they  will  help  you.  Discuss  the  sources  of  pure  and  impure  water. 
If  you  are  able,  make  experiments  with  local  water  supply.  Tell 
children  about  candy  adulterations  and  about  the  pure  candy  move- 
ment in  New  York.  Children  really  need  sugar,  but  in  order  to  get 
it  they  many  times  have  to  eat  a  considerable  glucose,  starch,  chemi- 
cal and  vegetable  coloring  matter  and  flavor.  Teach  children  how  to 
make  and  flavor  home-made  candy.  Shoy  the  harm  of  gum  chewing 
along  with  that  of  tobacco  chewing.  Condemn  quack  medicines.  Show 
how  most  of  it  is  unfit  for  use,  owing  its  effects  to  alcohol,  opiates, 
cocaine,  etc.  Teach  temperance  in  eating  and  drinking  good  food. 

Teach  the  nature  of  germ  or  contagious  disease.  Make  a  list  of 
diseases  for  which  there  is  a  quarantine  provision.  Let  the  child- 
ren tell  experiences  of  quarantine  at  home  or  on  boats. 

Teach  children  the  danger  of  pulmonary  diseases.  Especially  em- 
phasize the  danger  of  tuberculosis  or  what  is  commonly  called  con- 
sumption. It  is  a  menace  to  society  and  great  efforts  are  being  made 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  our  country  to  check  its  increase.  In  Greater 
New  York  there  are  30,000  cases.  It  is  contagious.  If  you  wish  in- 
formation write  Health  Dept.,  Fifty-fifth  St.  and  Sixth  Avs.,  New 
York,  and  a  circular  will  be  sent  any  teacher.  The  following  is  taken 
from  a  short  circular  prepared  by  the  Boston  Relief  Committee  (to 
be  made  into  a  chart  by  the  children)  : 


80  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


Buffalo    

Death 
allcc 
14.5  p 

»frc 
mses 
er  ce 

m               F 
Consu 
nt.       1.5  p 
1.5 
1.5 
2. 
2. 
2.25 
2.5 
3.5 

rom 
nipt 
gr  ce 

on 

in. 

17. 

20. 

16.5 

St  Louis                                    

18. 

Baltimore                              

20. 

New  York                      .          

20. 

New  Orleans... 

..  22. 

THINGS    BAD    FOR    WEAK    LUNGS. 

Dust  and  smoky  or  dusty  places  are  bad.  Dark,  damp  or  crowded 
rooms  are  bad.  Dirty  shops  and  stores,  dusty  kinds  of  business  are 
bad  for  weak  lungs.  To  sit  bent  over  one's  sewing  or  books  is  bad. 
Self-indulgence  and  intemperance  are  very  bad.  Vice  which  weak- 
ens the  strong  kills  the  weak. 

THINGS    GOOD   FOR   WEAK   LUNGS. 

Fresh  air  in  plenty  prevents  consumption.  Sunshine  kills  the 
germs.  Choose  sunny  rooms.  Open  the  windows  and  let  the  air  in. 
Keep  the  house  clean.  Be  in  the  open  air  as  often  as  can  be.  Out- 
door work  is  vastly  better  than  indoor  work.  Keep  the  feet  dry. 
Breathe  with  deep,  long,  full  breaths,  so  as  to  carry  the  fresh  air 
to  every  corner  of  your  lungs.  Do  this  always  for  several  minutes 
in  the  morning  and  at  night.  Breathe  through  the  nostrils,  and  not 
through  the  mouth. 

Spend  your  money  for  simple  and  well-cooked  foods — good  fresh 
meat,  eggs,  oatmeal,  rice  and  other  vegetables,  and  for  bread  and 
butter,  milk,  and  fruit.  Do  not  spend  money  for  beer  or  other 
liquors  or  for  quack  medicines,  or  "cures."  Live  a  regular  life,  and 
keep  the  bowels  regular.  Get  plenty  of  sleep.  Bathe  regularly. 
Keep  clean  company  and  a  clear  conscience.  Courage  is  very  import- 
ant. 

Whenever  any  oue  of  your  family  has  been  ill,  or  seems  weak  or 
run  down,  build  up  the  strength  at  once  with  nourishing  food,  extra 
rest,  and  fresh  air.  If  any  one  has  a  bad  cold  or  a  cough,  and  it 
does  not  grow  better  very  soon,  go  at  once  to  a  physician.  Don't  wait 
till  it  is  too  late.  The  doctor  is  worth  ten  times  as  much  to  help 
ward  off  disease  as  he  is  to  cure  it. 

Under  the  teachers'  direction  the  older  members  of  the  eighth 
grade  should  at  the  beginning  and  near  the  end  of  the  term  exam- 
ine the  eye  sight  of  each  pupil.  Ask  your  board  to  provide  you  with 
charts  for  that  purpose.  If  they  do  not,  apply  to  your  County  Super- 
intendent, who  will  do  so.  Place  the  chart  where  a  good  light  falls 
upon  it.  Measure  back  twenty  feet  and  make  a  permanent  mark  on 
the  floor.  Place  the  front  of  a  chair  at  this  mark.  Have  the  pupil 
sit  in  the  chair  with  one  hand  lightly  over  one  eye.  With  the  other 
eye,  read  the  letters,  beginning  at  the  top.  Let  him  read  until  he 
can  no  longer  distinguish  the  letters.  Note  the  number  of  the  line 
in  which  he  began  to  make  mistakes.  Write  that  number  under  20 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


81 


as  a  numerator,  i.  e.,  the  child  reads  line  40  well  but  fails  on  line 
30;  the  test  is  L  20-30,  meaning  the  left  eye  reads  line  30  but  with 
mistakes  at  20  feet.  Test  the  right  eye  in  the  same  way.  If  a 
child  is  found  who  is  very  near-sighted,  the  chair  must  be  moved  up 
to  10  or  even  5  feet.  In  writing  results  make  the  fraction  read  as 
before,  i.  e.,  with  20  as  numerator.  It  is  better  to  test  a  child  alone. 
With  a  tape  line  or  string  and  a  watch  test  the  hearing  of  each 
child.  The  teacher  will  find  nearly  all  children  normal  in  hearing. 
If  any  are  abnormal  it  will  readily  appear. 

Habitual  mouth-breathing  must  not  be  allowed.  It  leads  to  vari- 
ous troubles,  among  which  is  enfeebled  intellect.  The  children  will 
be  greatly  interested  in  weighing  and  measuring  themselves  to  find 
whether  they  are  up  to  the  standard  of  their  age.  The  following 
table  will  give  a  means  of  comparison: 


AGE. 

Weight  

1 

<W 

(31 

03 

&£ 
Ct>  J+ 

oq'a 

C3-OQ 
ct- 

Span  of 
arms  

Breadth 
of  head... 

Breadth 
of  chest  .  . 

Breadth 
of  waist.  .  . 

0 
IS 

*a 

Chest 
expansion. 

Sixteen  years  
Fifteen  years  
Fourteen  years  .  . 
Thirteen  years.  .  . 
Twelve  years  .... 
Eleven  years  
Ten  years  
Nine  years  

116.38 
103.29 
87.41 
78.32 
72.55 
64.89 
61.28 
55.15 

64.45 
62  25 
59.45 
57.10 
55.25 
53.10 
51.55 
49.55 

33.55 
32.15 
30.70 
29  60 
28.95 
28.20 
27.60 
26.80 

66.25 
63.15 
60.00 
57  50 
55.30 
53.40 
51  20 
49.10 

5.95 
5.90 
5.85 
5.80 
5.80 
5.75 
5  75 
5.70 

9.85 
9  30 
8.95 
8.70 
8.50 
8.25 
8.00 
7  80 

9.15 
8  65 
8.25 
7.95 
7.70 
7.45 
7.20 
7.10 

21.  .55 
21.45 
21.30 
21.10 
21.00 
20  85 
20  60 
20  65 

3.45 
3.30 
3.35 
3.25 
3.05 
2.90 
2  75 
2  55 

Eight  years  
Seven  years  
Six  years  

50.90 
46.85 
42  62 

47.75 
45.55 
43  55 

26.00 
25.20 
24  20 

47  00 
45.00 
42  60 

5.65 
5.65 
5.60 

7.65 
7.45 
7  25 

6.95 
6.75 
6  55 

20  55 
20.45 
20  25 

2.35 
1.80 
1  65 

Five  years  

39  29 

41  60 

23  60 

40  35 

5  60 

7  15 

6  50 

20  15 

1  35 

The  above  is  the  anthropometric  table  for  boys  five  to  sixteen 
years  of  age,  based  upon  the  actual  measurement  of  5476  school 
boys.  The  figures  are  in  inches  and  hundredths  of  an  inch.  For  each 
age  the  date  represents  the  average  boy  of  that  age.  This  table  is 
taken  from  Hasting's  Manual  of  Physical  Measurements  of  Boys  and 
Girls  (Macmillan  &  Co.),  the  most  reliable  data  available. 

Myopia  is  seldom  congenital.  All  experts  agree  that  it  is  rarely 
found  in  children  less  than  five  years  of  age;  that  it  arises  from  too 
steady  application  of  the  eyes  to  close  objects  during  school  age. — 
Cohn. 

"I  have  examined  a  great  number  of  Lapps,  Calimucks,  Patigoni- 
ans,  Nubians,  Somolis,  etc.,  but  I  have  never  found  a  single  near- 
sighted person  among  either  children  or  adults." — Kotelmann. 

Dr.  Cohn  found  in  Germany  that  in  village  schools  the  percentage 
of  shortsightedness  is  very  small,  while  in  town  the  number  con- 
stantly increases  with  the  grade  of  school. 

Dr.  Smith  found  myopia  to  increase  as  follows,  in  Chicago 
schools:  Six  to  8  years,  4.09  per  cent.;  8-10,  5.65  per  cent.;  10-12, 
10.98  per  cent.;  12-14,  12.89  per  cent.;  14-15,  16.17  per  cent;  15-16, 
—6 


82  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

17.76  per  cent.;  16-18,  23.26  per  cent.;  18-19,  25.31  per  cent.;  19-20, 
27.08  per  cent. 

The  result  of  the  examination  of  over  26,000  cases  shows:  Near 
sightedness  originates  as  a  rule  during  school  life.  The  percentage 
increases  according  to  the  length  of  school  experience.  Dr.  Allport 
tested  26,696  children  and  found  8,166  or  32  per  cent,  with  defective 
vision  in  some  degrees;  6,451  eyes,  20-30;  2,256,  20-40;  1,214,  20-50; 
745,  20-100;  447,  20-200;  43  practically  blind;  4,472  had  eye  tire  pro- 
ducing headache. 

The  results  of  habitual  mouth-breathing:  (1)  A  voice  without 
ring — a  dead  voice;  (2)  misarticulation  of  certain  words;  (3)  air 
to  the  lungs  lacking  in  moisture  and  temperature;  (4)  temporary 
teeth  decay  rapidly;  (5)  narrow  alveolar  arch  and  "hatchet  face"; 
(6) hearing  becomes  dull;  (7)  poorly  developed  chest;  (8)  mental 
dullness.  And  this  does  not  include  all  the  ills  which  result.  A 
mouth-  breathing  child  will  take  a  contagious  disease  more  readily 
than  a  normal  child.  Call  upon  a  nose  and  throat  specialist  for  help 
in  such  cases. 

The  teeth  offer  a  good  opportunity  for  careful  study.  They  are 
accessible,  and  they  are  so  often  the  cause  of  suffering  that  nearly 
every  child  from  experience  can  give  some  information.  Provide  your- 
self with  various  kinds  of  teeth,  carefully  marked.  It  is  easy  to  se- 
cure teeth  of  the  cow,  sheep,  cat,  horse,  etc.  Contrast  the  teeth  of 
the  gnawers  with  cud  chewers,  etc.  If  possible,  with  a  good  saw 
cut  some  large  teeth  into-  two  parts — cut  some  in  one  section,  others 
in  a  different  section.  With  a  file  or  grindstone  smooth  down  the 
rough  saw  edges.  Notice  the  structure  of  the  teeth.  Go  to  the 
dentist  for  a  few  human  teeth,  especially  those  with  cavities.  Watch 
the  children  for  loose  milk  teeth  which  should  be  saved  for  future  use. 
The  roots  of  milk  teeth  are  absorbed,  hence  there  is  only  the  crown 
left.  Watch  the  eruption  of  permanent  teeth.  Do  all  animals  have 
two  sets  of  teeth?  How  about  the  cat,  dog,  horse,  etc.?  Sharks,  for 
example,  have  many  teeth,  teeth  being  formed  to  meet  the  demand. 
Have  you  known  of  a  person  who  has  more  than  two  sets  of  teeth? 
Do  you  know  a  grown  person  who  still  has  a  baby  or  milk  tooth?  Do 
you  know  of  any  irregularities  of  the  teeth?  As  the  jaw  of  modern 
man  is  growing  smaller,  there  is  much  crowding  of  teeth.  The  den- 
tist will  explain  the  term,  orthodontia,  literally,  right  or  straight 
teeth. 

There  is  great  need  for  instruction  in  the  care  of  teeth.  Recent 
investigations  in  both  Europe  and  America  have  shown  that  85  per 
cent,  of  school  children  have  or  have  had  decayed  teeth.  Milk  teeth 
are  important  and  should  not  be  pulled;  they  help  develop  the  jaws 
and  permanent  teeth.  Teach  the  young  child  to  brush  the  teeth. 
Consult  parents  about  bad  cases.  The  Care  of  the  Teeth,  by  Sam 
A.  Hopkins  (D.  Appleton  &  Co),  75  cents,  is  an  excellent  book. 

Send  to  A.  C.  True,  Director  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  for  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  142,  Principles  of  Nutrition  and 


PHYSIOLOGY.  83 


Nutritive  Value  of  Food,  by  W.  O.  Atwater.  This  pamphlet  is  the 
best  thing  in  print,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher.  Say 
you  are  a  teacher  and  wish  the  bulletin  to  aid  you  in  your  work.  In 
addition  to  the  above,  No.  112,  Bread  and  Principles  of  Bread-Mak- 
ing; No.  182,  Poultry  as  Food;  No.  85,  Fish  as  Food;  No.  128,  Eggs 
and  Their  Uses  as  Food;  No.  34,  Meats,  Confection  and  Cooking; 
No.  74,  Milk  as  Food.  Also  Circular  No.  46,  The  Functions  and 
Uses  of  Food,  and  Care  of  Food  as  Related  to  Its  Nutritive  Value. 
All  these  are  valuable  and  possibly  may  be  obtained  at  the  same 
time.  Write  to  Director  True  for  list  of  publications  of  the  office  of 
experiment  stations  on  the  food  and  nutrition  of  man. 

Notice  the  influence  of  different  foods  upon  man  and  animals. 
The  kind  and  amount  of  food  depends  upon  (1)  age;  children  re- 
quiring more,  especially  of  proteids;  old  people  cannot  digest  heavy 
food;  (2)  climate;  note  the  use  of  blubber,  fruit,  rice,  etc.,  in  differ- 
ent climates;  (3)  sex;  (4)  occupation. 

Study  the  ingestion  of  food  in  the  case  of  amoeba.  So  up  the  ani- 
mal scale,  noting  the  increase  in  complexity  of  food  and  the  alimen- 
tary system.  Classify  animals  according  to  the  kind  of  food  used. 
Note  how  plants  have  been  cultivated  for  man's  food.  Make  much 
of  the  work  of  Mr.  Luther  Burbank  in  transforming  weeds  into 
useful  plants,  modifying  plants,  etc.  M.  Soyer  "assures  us  that  he 
has  from  experience  made  up  a  scale  of  food  for  the  day  for  a  period 
of  60  years,  and  it  amounts  to  thirty-three  and  three-fourths  tons  of 
meat,  farinaceous  food,  vegetables,  etc."  Additional  interest  may 
be  given  by  discussing  the  various  food  cults,  vegetarianism,  un- 
cooked foods,  nut  foods,  etc. 

In  1893  the  Committee  of  Fifty  was  organized  to  investigate  the 
liquor  problem.  After  several  years  of  careful  study  this  committee 
made  an  elaborate  report.  The  National  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union  took  exception  to  the  report,  at  least  to  that  part 
which  deals  with  the  teaching  of  hygiene  and  physiology  in  the  public 
schools.  The  committee's  report  is  not  accessible  to  the  average 
teacher,  but  the  reply  issued  by  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  may  be  obtained  by 
addressing  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  Boston,  Mass.  This  reply  quotes  so 
extensively  from  the  committee's  report  that  one  gets  a  fair  notion 
of  its  main  points.  Every  teach'er  should  have  the  reply.  No  doubt 
the  local  W.  C.  T.  U.  will  be  able  to  supply  the  paper. 

Little  is  to  be  gained  through  teaching  the  details  of  the  making 
of  intoxicants.  It  is  the  nature  and  effect  of  the  stimulants  which 
must  be  impressed.  The  effect  of  teaching  will  always  rest  upon 
moral  rather  than  scientific  grounds.  A  few  experiments  of  known 
scientific  value  should  be  introduced,  but  mainly  the  immorality  inci- 
dent to  the  use  of  stimulants  should  be  emphasized.  The  procuring 
of  narcotics  usually  leads  to  (1)  secrecy;  (2)  dishonesty;  (3) 
theft.  Their  use  results  in  (1)  hardening  of  moral  sensibility;  (2) 
indifference  to  opinions  of  good  people;  (3)  duplicity  and  deception 
— all  infinitely  worse  than  the  physiological  effect  of  the  use  of  nar- 


84  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

cotics.  The  teacher  should  show  the  pupils  that  their  use  is  (1)  un- 
necessary; (2)  expensive;  (3)  dangerous;  (4)  harmful  to  growth 
and  strength;  (5)  immoral.  Effort  should  be  directed  toward  the 
whole  school  in  order  to  create  a  public  or  school  sentiment  in  favor 
of  cleanliness  and  decency  and  against  anything  low,  vulgar,  and 
dirty.  Do  not  over  emphasize  the  use  of  narcotics  to  the  neglect  of 
bodily  cleanliness,  regard  for  the  suffering-  of  others,  etc.  There 
must  be  a  unity  in  this  work;  upon  such  unity  the  final  results  largely 
depend.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  such  work  to  develop  a  few  ex- 
tremists, bitterly  condemning  one  form  of  human  indulgence,  while 
violating  other  principles  of  hygiene  equally  important.  The  teacher 
may  condemn  drinking  because  of  its  very  grave  danger  but  there 
should  always  be  judgment,  consideration  and  fairness  even  in  con- 
demnation. Be  careful  not  to  make  statements  which  the  older  chil- 
dren know  to  be  illogical!  there  are  enough  facts  to  thoroughly  con- 
demn intemperance  without  exaggeration  or  misstatement.  Dignity 
in  condemnation  is  a  source  of  power. 

The  following  simple  experiments  demonstrates  all  the  import- 
ant characteristics  of  alcohol.  The  affinity  which  alcohol  has  for 
water  is  the  cause  of  the  thirst  of  the  liquor  drinker.  Pour  a  little 
alcohol  into  a  clear  glass  vessel.  Note  its  qualities.  Put  a  little  into 
a  saucer  and  apply  a  match.  Note  its  manner  of  burning.  Place 
some  white  of  egg  in  a  saucer,  cover  it  with  alcohol.  Note  that  it 
turns  white  and  hardens.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  alcohol  has 
extracted  the  water  in  the  albumin.  Alcohol  does  not  have  so  great 
effect  upon  living  tissue,  but  it  does  take  some  water  even  from  such 
tissue. 

Put  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  water  each  into  a  vessel  by  itself. 
Take  the  temperature  of  each  by  emersing  a  thermometer;  then  add 
the  two  mixtures  and  take  the  temperature.  Notice  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  mixture  is  higher  than  the  average  of  the  two  sep- 
arated. 

Pour  some  alcohol  on  the  back  of  the  hand  or  bare  arm.  Notice 
that  the  skin  seems  cooler,  due  to  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the  alcohol. 

To  one  ounce  of  the  spirits  of  camphor  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
water.  Notice  that  the  liquid  at  once  becomes  whitish.  The  alcohol 
unites  with  the  water  and  leaves  small  particles  of  camphor  afloat. 

The  teacher's  most  serious  problem  is  cigarette  smoking.  Pro- 
hibition only  drives  the  boys  to  the  woodshed  or  other  place  of  con- 
cealment, thereby  adding  greatly  to  the  evil;  then  it  is  doubly  wrong 
— physiologically  and  morally.  Moral  persuasion  is  most  effective. 
Sometimes  to  arouse  ambition  to  own  something  desirable  is  to  check 
smoking  through  the  effort  to  save  money  for  a  special  purpose. 
Again,  smoking  can  be  controlled  through  an  effort  to  please  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  should  never  confine  her  efforts  to  a  few  weak- 
willed  boys,  but  must  attack  the  problem  as  a  whole. 

Geo.  E.  St.  John  thinks  cigarette  smoking  is  the  cause  of  much 
of  the  failures  of  school  children.  He  finds  upon  investigation  that 
2.5  per  cent,  in  second  grade,  24  per  cent,  in  third,  45  per  cent,  in 
fourth  grade,  54  per  cent,  in  fifth  grade,  55  per  cent,  in  sixth  grade, 


PHYSIOLOGY.  85 


64  per  cent,  in  seventh  grade  and  55  per  cent,  in  eighth  grade  smoke, 
or  have  smoked,  cigarettes.  He  thinks  there  is  a  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  between  smoking  and  dullness  or  incorrigibility. 

BOOK    WORK. 

The  following  outline  embraces  suggestions  concerning  the  teach- 
ing of  the  bones,  the  blood,  the  circulation,  and  the  nervous  system. 
The  omitted  topics  are  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  manner:  by  com- 
parison with  the  animal,  especially  those  in  which  the  physiological 
functions  are  much  simpler  than  in  man,  experiments  by  the  teacher 
and  the  class,  the  making  of  charts  and  diagrams,  illustrations  from 
any  reliable  source. 

Bones. — Show  the  class,  (1)  fresh  cartilage;  (2)  fresh  bone  with 
the  periosteum  partly  removed;  (3)  fresh  bone  sawed  lengthwise; 
*(4)  crosswise;  (5)  dead  or  bleached  bone.  Compare  with  horn, 
shaft  of  feather,  bill  of  chicken,  shell  of  a  clam,  etc.  Distinguish 
between  endoskeleton  and  exoskeleton.  Perform  the  time-honored  ex- 
periment of  tieing  a  bone  into  a  knot.  Into  a  pint  of  water  in  a  fruit 
jar  put  2  oz.  muriatic  acid.  Select  a  leg  bone  of  a  chicken,  or  the 
rib  of  a  sheep.  Watch  the  bone  to  see  that  acid  is  not  too  strong; 
it  may  eat  the  bone.  After  about  four  days  tie  into  a  knot  in  pres- 
ence of  the  class.  Put  an  egg  into  a  narrow-necked  bottle  if  that  will 
add  interest.  Burn  a  bone  carefully  on  a  shovel  in  the  fire;  this 
leaves  only  mineral  matter,  as  the  first  experiments  leave  only  ani- 
mal matter.  To  demonstrate  the  superiority  of  the  hollow  cylinder 
over  the  solid  cylinder  of  the  same  weight,  take  two  similar  pieces  of 
heavy  writing  paper;  roll  one  into  a  light,  close  cylinder;  roll  the 
other  around  a  piece  of  broom-stick;  which  remove.  In  both  cases 
fasten  with  a  little  paste.  Stand  on  end  in  such  a  way  as  to  sup- 
port a  teacup.  Pour  shot  into  this  until  the  column  breaks.  The 
same  experiment  may  be  done  by  supporting  the  ends,  placing  a  string 
around  the  middle,  suspending  a  cup  into  which  shot  is  placed. 
Study  the  repair  of  a  broken  bone;  the  fontanels;  the  fincus  bone. 
Tell  about  the  binding  of  Chinese  feet,  the  flattening  of  the  head  by 
certain  Indian  tribes;  devices  for  strainghtening  crooked  limbs;  ex- 
plain the  principles  of  osteopathy. 

Blood. — The  cells  of  the  body  need  nourishment.  As  most  of 
them  cannot  come  into  contact  with  the  food  material,  some  arrange- 
ment must  be  made  by  which  the  food  material  is  brought  directly 
to  the  cells..  Blood  is  liquid  food;  it  goes  directly  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  following  formula  (Hutchinson)  shows  composition: 

Fluid  blood.  Coagulated  blood. 

Plasma  -    -  serum  -    -  serum 

"  fibrin 
Corpuscles  -  -  corpus'cles  -  -  clot 


86  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Get  some  fresh  blood  from  the  butcher  or  from  a  family  where 
there  is  to  be  a  chicken  dinner.  (Do  not  allow  children  to  kill  ani- 
mals for  the  sake  of  illustrative  material.)  Put  some  fresh  blood 
into  a  watch  crystal  and  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes.  Notice  the 
bright  red  rim  with  the  dark  center.  With  three  or  four  straws  from 
the  broom  whip  up  some  fresh  blood  for  three  minutes.  Notice  the 
thin  plasma  and  corpuscles  in  the  dish  and  the  fibrin  gathered  on 
the  straws. 

Data  concerning  blood:  7.5  per  cent,  body  weight;  35  per  cent, 
corpuscles,  65  per  cent,  plasma.  Red  corpuscles,  65  per  cent,  water, 
35  per  cent,  solid,  the  chief  of  which  is  hemoglobin,  the  red  coloring 
matter.  Hemoglobin  unites  with  oxygen,  which  it  carries  to  the  tis- 
sues where  it  is  given  up.  The  presence  of  oxygen  makes  the  blood 
bright,  red.  In  one  cu.  mm.  there  are  5  billion  red  corpuscles  in  the 
male  and  4.5  billion  in  the  female.  The  number  of  red  corpuscles  is 
greater  in  higher  altitudes.  Why?  White  corpuscles,  or  leucocytes, 
have  no  constant  shape;  about  10,000  in  one  cu.  mm.  (500  red  to  one 
white) .  White  corpuscles  can  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  capil- 
laries into  the  lymph,  a  fluid  which  carries  the  food  material  directly 
to  the  cells. 

Prick  the  skin  with  a  needle,  put  the  drop  of  blood  on  a  slide  by 
the  side  of  the  cover  glass,  which  has  been  previously  moistened  with 
pure  water.  By  placing  the  edge  of  a  blotter  on  the  side  of  the  cover 
glass  opposite  the  drop  of  blood,  the  blood  will  be  drawn  evenly  under 
the  cover  glass.  Examine  at  once  while  there  is  movement  among 
the  corpuscles.  Compare  the  blood  with  sap  in  the  plant.  Is  all 
blood  red?  Is  all  blood  warm?  Notice  the  blood  of  lower  animals, 
as  crayfish,  clam,  fish,  frog.  Can  the  blood  of  man  be  recognized  by 
certain  characteristics?  Make  chart  showing  proportion  of  weight 
of  blood  to  body  weight;  composition  of  blood;  the  relative  size  of 
corpuscles  of  various  animals  and  man. 

Circulation. — If  possible  borrow  from  the  local  physician  a  steth- 
roscope  and  allow  the  class  to  listen  to  heart  beats.  Notice  systole 
and  diastole.  Compare  three  conditions:  1,  quiet;  2,  exercise;  3, 
running.  To  see  the  valves  of  the  veins,  bare  the  arm  when  body  has 
been  well  exercised,  and  rub  the  finger  along  a  vein  toward  the  hand 
and  the  knots  will  indicate  the  location  of  the  valves. 

The  movements  of  the  artery  in  the  human  body  as  the  pulse- 
wave  passes  through  it  may  be  shown  to  consist  in  a  sudden  dilation, 
followed  by  a  slow  contraction,  interrupted  by  one  or  more  secondary 
dilations.  In  the  absence  of  a  sphygnograph,  this  demonstration  may 
be  best  made  by  pressing  a  small  piece  of  looking  glass  upon  the 
wrist  over  the  radical  artery  in  such  a  way  that  with  each  pulse- 
beat  the  mirror  may  be  slightly  tilted.  If  the  wrist  be  now  held  in 
such  a  position  that  sunlight  will  fall  upon  the  mirror  a  spot  of  light 
will  be  reflected  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room,  and  by  its  motion 
upon  the  wall  show  that  the  expansion  of  the  artery  is  a  sudden  move- 
ment followed  by  slow  contraction. — Bowditch. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  87 


Data  concerning  the  circulation:  The  cardiac  cycle  lasts  about 
.86  second,  divided  as  follows/  1.  Auricular  systole,  ventricles  at 
rest,  .16  second.  2.  Ventricular  systole,  ventricles  at  rest,  0  3  sec- 
onds. 3.  Pause,  during  which  both  are  at  rest,  0.4  second.  Heart 
beats  per  minute  average  70,  in  children,  first  year  134,  increased  by 
fever  or  excitement.  Pressure  in  the  left  ventricle  three  times  as 
great  as  in  the  right.  Rate  of  flow:  In  large  arteries,  200  to  400 
mm.  per  second;  in  capillaries,  .6  to  .8  mm.;  in  large  veins  a  little 
less  than  in  large  arteries.  The  time  of  complete  circulation  varies, 
but  it  is  supposed  to  be  about  22  seconds. 

"The  entire  quantity  of  blood  passes  through  the  heart  about 
three  times  per  minute. — Jegi. 

Compare  the  circulation  of  blood  with  that  of  sap.  Do  all  ani- 
mals having  blood  have  hearts?  Note  the  lowest  animals.  Are  all 
hearts  four  chambered?  Do  some  animals  have  more  than  one  heart? 
Again  notice  lower  animals,  as  clam,  earth  worm,  etc. 

Respiration. — Respiration  is  the  process  by  which  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  cells  of  the  body.  The  blood 
carries  oxygen  as  well  as  food.  The  plasma  slightly  absorbs  oxygen 
while  the  hemoglobin  unites  with  it  in  a  loose  affinity,  called  oxy- 
hemoblobin.  In  the  capilliaries  the  affinity  is  easily  broken  down 
and  the  oxygen  unites  with  the  tissues  to  produce  body  heat. 

If  the  teacher  wishes,  let  her  procure  a  lung  from  some  slaught- 
ered animal,  inflate  it  to  its  full  size,  tie,  and  put  away  to  dry.  After 
it  has  become  quite  dry,  with  a  sharp  razor  cut  it  into  sections.  With 
an  ordinary  magnifying  glass  the  class  can  get  a  fine  idea  of  the 
gross  anatomy  of  the  lungs.  A  better  plan  is  to  get  the  lungs  from 
a  frog  and  put  a  very  thin  section  under  a  low  power  of  the  micro- 
scope. If  a  frog  is  sacrificed,  be  sure  to  save  the  trachea  while  fresh, 
cut  it  open  with  a  pair  of  shary  scissors,  spread  it  apart,  lay  a  small 
piece  of  cork  on  the  exposed  inner  surface.  Notice  that  it  slowly 
moves  toward  the  mouth. 

Look  up  the  meaning  of  apnoea,  dyspnoea,  asphyxia. 

Fill  a  fruit  jar  full  of  water;  without  spilling  a  drop  invert  the 
jar  in  water;  blow  through  a  short  rubber  tube  for  a  few  seconds 
while  the  other  end  is  in  the  water,  then  place  that  end  under  the 
jar.  Take  a  breath,  hold  it  half  a  minute  until  the  air  in  the  lungs 
has  been  thoroughly  changed;  blow  the  jar  full  of  air  from  the 
lungs.  Keep  the  mouth  of  the  jar  under  the  water  all  the  time  so 
that  no  outside  air  can  enter.  Light  a  twisted  paper;  when  it  is 
blazing  well,  lift  the  jar  out  and  insert  the  burning  paper.  Notice 
that  the  blaze  is  immediately  extinguished  as  though  placed  in  water. 
It  adds  to  the  effectiveness  to  put  the  lighted  paper  into  the  jar  when 
full  of  fresh  air  and  note  that  the  blaze  continues  for  some  time. 
It  may  crack  the  jar. 

Make  some  lime  water  by  putting  a  few  small  pieces  of  un- 
slacked  lime  into  a  fruit  jar  filled  with  water.  When  dissolved  pour 
off  top.  Force  air  from  the  lungs,  through  lime  water.  Notice  that 
it  becomes  milky. 


88  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Data  concerning  respiration:  Arterial  blood  contains  19.2  per 
cent.  0.  39.5  per  cent.  CO2,  and  2.7  per  cent.  N.  Venous  blood, 
11.9  per  cent.  O,  45.3  per  cent.  CO2,  2.7  N.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
tions inspired  air  contains  20.96  per  cent,  oxygen,  .04  per  cent.  C02, 
while  expired  air  has  16  per  cent,  oxygen  and  4  per  cent.  CO2.  The 
average  man  inhales  in  24  hours  about  500  litres  of  oxygen  and  ex- 
hales 450  litres  of  CO2.  In  the  average  adult  the  tidal  air  about 
500cc.  Complemental  air  by  forced  inspiration,  about  2500  cc;  sup- 
plemental air  is  about  1500  cc.  The  three  together  make  the  vital 
capacity  about  4500  cc.  The  residual  air  is  about  1200  co.  Adults 
breathe  about  18  times  per  minute;  babies,  40-45;  children,  25;  young 
people,  about  20. 

When  the  school-room  has  been  closed  all  day  and  you  know 
the  air  is  impure,  pour  some  fresh  lime  water  into  a  plate  and  set 
on  your  desk.  Shake  it  or  stir  it  with  a  spoon.  Notice  that  it  be- 
comes milky.  Hintj  better  ventilation. 

Breathe  on  a  cold  surface,  as  glass  or  iron.  Notice  the  moisture 
from  the  breath.  Breathe  into  a  jar  with  glass  stop  and  close  it  se- 
curely. Set  in  warm  place  24  hours;  open  under  the  nose.  Notice 
the  odor. 

Nervous  System. — The  manifestations  of  life  are:  (1)  Motion; 
(2)  irritability;  (3)  assimilation;  (4)  excretion;  (5)  reproduction; 
(6)  growth.  Without  a  nervous  system  the  individual  cannot  re- 
spond to  the  changes  in  his  environment,  cannot  escape  danger,  se- 
cure food,  etc.  Notice  the  simple  system  of  the  lower  animals;  note 
the  appearance  of  a  "brain"  as  the  scale  of  life  is  ascended.  Note 
the  evidence  of  segmentation  as  seen  in  the  special  senses  and  spinal 
nerves.  Learn  something  of  the  embryological  condition  of  the  human 
brain  and  sense  organs.  If  possible  place  before  the  class  a  chicken 
or  sheep  brain,  fresh  and  also  hardened  in  alcohol.  Secure  an  eye 
from  the  butcher,  and  especially  notice  the  crystalline  lens.  Show 
the  class  that  it  will  magnify  print  as  will  a  glass  lens.  Have  good 
drawings  made  of  parts  of  the  sense  organs.  Give  illustrations  of 
the  effect  of  injuries  upon  the  brain,  mapping  out  the  determined 
areas  and  functions.  Discuss  paralysis,  paraplegia,  descussation, 
ataxia,  stuttering,  relation  of  intelligence  to  brain  weight.  .  Some 
large  brains  are:  Cuvier  (naturalist),  64.5  oz.;  Webster  (states- 
man), 53.5  oz.  ;  Abercrombie  (g-eneral),  63  oz  ;  Agassiz  (naturalist), 
53.4  oz.  The  average  brain  weight  in  Europeans  is  49.5  oz.  male, 
44  pz.  female.  Discuss  idiocy,  insanity,  intelligence  of  animals,  hyp- 
notism, automatic  action,  items  which  tend  to  broaden  the  pupils  in- 
terest in  the  mind.  If  the  teacher  is  able,  there  are  many  little  ex- 
periments which  may  be  tried  to  illustrate  the  working  of  the  mind. 
For  example,  have  class  of  ten  to  twenty  take  hold  of  hands,  the 
teacher  forming  one  of  the  number.  With  a  watch  upon  the  table 
in  front  of  you,  press  the  hand  of  your  left-hand  neighbor,  who 
presses  the  hand  of  his  neighbor,  and  so  on  around  until  the  teacher 
receives  the  signal  from  the  right-hand  neighbor.  Note  the  time, 
measure  the  total  distance,  and  you  have  a  crude  estimate  of  the 
rapidity  of  nervous  action.  The  rate  of  nervous  impulse  varies  with 
individuals  and  conditions.  In  the  same  individual  it  travels  from 
forty  to  one  hundred  feet  a  second.  On  a  package  of  cards  paint  red 
circles,  red  squares,  blue  triangles  and  blue  crescents.  Select  a  cer- 
tain number  of  cards,  say  50  or  100.  Shuffle  them  well  and  deal 


NATURE   STUDY   AND   AGRICULTURE.  89 


them  off  into  two  piles,  without  reference  to  what  is  on  the  cards. 
Do  this  twelve  times.  Disregard  the  quickest  and  slowest  record, 
find  average  of  the  remaining  ten,  divide  by  number  of  cards.  This 
tells  how  long  it  takes  to  handle  one  card.  Now  perform  twelve  ex- 
periments, separating  the  cards  into  red  and  blue  piles;  find  the  time 
for  one  card.  Again  separate  into  four  piles  according  to  form. 
These  give  the  time  of  discrimination — a  very  interesting  bit  of 
information. 


NATURE  STUDY  AND  AGRICULTURE* 


NATURE  STUDY, 

"I  am  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  greatest  thing  a  human 
soul  ever  does  in  this  world  is  to  see  something,  and  tell  what  it  saw 
in  a  plain  way.  Hundreds  of  people  can  talk  for  one  who  can  think, 
but  thousands  can  think  for  one  who  can  see.  To  see  clearly  is 
poetry,  prophecy,  and  religion — all  in  one." — John  Ruskin. 

Intelligent  observation  of  his  environment,  in  order  to  understand 
it  and  its  relation  to  himself,  is  the  first  object  of  a  child's  activi- 
ties. He  must  know  the  concrete  before  he  can  make  abstractions, 
and  justification  is  no  longer  needed  for  detailed  attention  to  that 
line  of  study  which  not  only  includes  the  common  facts  of  every- 
day life,  but  which  forms  the  basis  of  broader  scientific  investigations. 
The  imperative  demand  for  sound  reasoning  and  accurate  judgments 
cannot  be  supplied  until  stupid  indifference  to  isolated  facts  gives 
place  to  active,  earnest  searching  for  the  universal  law  of  life  which 
governs  all  expressions  of  life.  Facts  are  necessary.  In  Nature 
Study,  we  cannot  have  too  many  of  them,  if  they  are  actual  abso- 
lute truths  about  nature;  but,  for  a  right  perspective,  they  must  be 
so  correlated  that,  like  the  convergence  of  lines,  they  meet  at  a  com- 
mon point,  and  prove  all  nature  is  one.  Methods  of  instruction  must 
be  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  pupil  and  the  teacher  needs  to 
carefully  consider  the  subject-matter  from  the  child's  standpoint 
and  with  the  child's  methods.  Nothing  false  or  assumed  appeals  to 
children,  and  without  spontaneity  and  honest,  natural  dealing  with 
this  work,  it  becomes  a  mere  "tinkling  cymbal,"  stultifying  and  dead- 
ening the  eager  activities  which  it  is  designed  to  quicken. 

Infinitely  deeper  than  outlined  scheme  of  these  lessons  lies  the 
living  central  truth  of  each.  Nothing  less  than  finding  and  applying 
it  to  the  great  life  problem  fulfills  the  law,  in  both  letter  and  spirit. 

PRIMARY   GRADES. 

SEEDS. 

Material:  Individual  collections  of  seeds  common  to  locality. 
Keep  in  envelopes  or  mounted  on  cards.  Prepare  seeds  of  berries 
by  washing  free  from  pulp,  and  drying  slowly. 


90  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Comparison:  Form,  size,  color,  covering,  uses,  value,  protection, 
friends,  enemies.  Study  shape  of  seed-box  and  fastening  of  seeds  to 
walls  of  box;  how  arranged,  and  why?  Agencies  of  dissemination. 

From  the  following  list,  select  and  study  by  comparison  as  many 
as  the  class  can  learn  to  distinguish  readily.  (Add  to  the  list  from 
your  locality.) 

Garden  Vegetables  and  Fruits:  Cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  cu- 
cumbers, lettuce,  carrots,  onions,  tomatoes,  sage,  rhubarb,  beans,  peas, 
squashes,  lemons,  mushrooms. 

Weeds:     Dandelions,  thistles,  dog-fennel,  jimson  weed. 

Grasses:     Timothy,   red-top,   wheat,   barley,   oats. 

GERMINATION    OF    SEEDS. 

Material:  Several  kinds  of  large  seeds,  preferably  peas,  and 
squashes;  if  possible  a  good  magnifying  glass;  also,  a  box  of  soil 
found  near  the  surface,  and  another  box  filled  with  earth  that  has 
been  buried  several  inches  below.  Place  some  of  the  seeds  in  dry 
sand,  some  in  sawdust,  some  in  warm  water.  Vary  position,  depth, 
moisture,  and  heat  of  those  in  good  soil.  Prove  need  of  water,  air 
warmth,  and  that  earth  and  light  are  not  a  necessity. 

Comparison:  (Dry  and  soaked.)  Color,  size,  shape,  hardness, 
scar,  opening.  Remove  coat  of  each  and  compare  layers.  Study 
crumpled  leaves,  white  point,  jelly. 

Invert  in  water  a  thin  glass  bottle  that  has  been  filled  with  dry 
peas  or  beans,  and  note  the  result.  Watch  for  the  sprouting  of  any 
seeds  that  may  be  in  the  boxes  of  soil,  and  discuss  how  they  may 
have  been  carried  there. 

ROOTS    OF    PLANTS. 

Material:  Examples  of  underground  stems,  and  roots,  and  those 
found  above  ground;  a  piece  of  turf. 

Compare:  Tap-roots,  bulbs,  etc.,  as  to  form,  size,  uses,  protec- 
tion from  enemies,  nourishment  taken  from  soil.  What  roots  help 
each  other?  Hinder? 

Study:  Potato,  onion,  carrot,  bean,  buttercup,  etc.  Grasses,  trees. 
Show  how  bulbs  may  be  forced  into  bloom  in  winter;  how  the  root 
feeds. 

STEMS    OF    PLANTS. 

Material:  Individual  collections  which  may  be  mounted  or  pre- 
served for  future  use. 

Comparison:  Shape,  size,  color,  smell,  taste,  sap,  age,  uses.  What 
enemies?  Friends?  Keep  assortment  of  uniform  length,  and  re- 
view until  there  is  ready  recognition  of  each.  Study  may  be  made 
of  those  plants  selected  for  preceding  lessons,  if  class  need  what 
might  be  used  as  review;  but  if  work  under  "Seeds"  and  "Roots" 
has  been  thoroughly  done,  it  would  be  better  to  learn  new  names 
while  comparing  stems. 

LEAVES. 

Study  by  one  of  preceding  outlines.     Observe  needles  of  pine  or 


NATURE  STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE.  91 

fir,  spines  of  cactus,  etc.  Show  by  experiment  that  leaves  give  out 
moisture.  Parts  of  a  leaf:  petiole,  blade,  veins.  Why  change  of 
color?  Arrangement? 

BLOSSOMS. 

Parts  of  Flower:  Calyx  (seed-cradle),  petals,  stamens,  pollen, 
pistil,  ovary  (seed-basket),  seeds. 

FRUITS. 

Kinds,  appearance,  parts,  use  of  parts  to  plant,  to  man.  Bril- 
liant colors  of  some  fruits.  Why?  Most  common  color?  Which  do 
not  change  in  ripening?  Use  collection  of  fruits  for  class  to  distin- 
guish by  feeling,  smelling,  and,  when  cut  up  in  small,  indistinguish- 
able bits,  by  tasting-. 

TREES. 

Parts  of  a  Tree:  Roots,  trunk,  branches,  flowers,  fruit  (that 
which  contains  seed).  Study  evergreen  trees  in  your  locality.  Dif- 
ferent from  other  trees — height,  manner  of  branching,  leaves,  buds, 
cones,  etc.  Use  of  resin  or  gum.  Protection  of  trees.  Enemies? 
Friends?  Clear  lumber  or  knotty.  Why?  Use  of  leaves?  Why  do 
some  trees  lose  leaves? 

WEATHER   RECORD. 

Make  chart  on  blackboard  or  large  sheet  of  cardboard.  Fill  rec- 
ord near  the  middle  of  day;  or  find  average  of  both  morning  and 
afternoon  periods.  For  direction  of  winds,  let  observation  be  made 
at  intermission  and  one  pupil  make  observations  from  window  at 
the  time  for  filing  record. 

Clouds:  Layer,  woolly,  feathery,  black.  (For  older  pupils,  third 
or  fourth  grades,  use  the  names  stratus,  cumulus,  cirrus,  and  nim- 
bus, for  the  cloud  forms.) 

Weather:  Temperature,  wind,  direction  of  wind.  (Mark  with 
arrow.)  Date.  Compare  for  diiferent  months. 

BIRDS. 

Give  opportunity  to  observe,  before  week  of  lesson,  influences  af- 
fecting bird  life;  arrival  or  departure;  nest  building;  food.  Let  first 
lesson  not  include  more  than  observations  made.  Later,  discuss  the 
bird  that  had  teeth  and  left  its  picture  in  the  rocks;  why  were  teeth 
needed  then?  Why  not  now?  Compare  likenesses  and  differences  of 
our  birds  to  other  animals;  animals  of  flight,  egg-layers,  etc.;  shape 
of  the  body  of  birds  and  of  fish. 

Nests:     Location,  structure. 

Eggs:  Time  for  hatching;  condition  of  young  ones;  care  neces- 
sary; food,  movements.  How  do  young  birds  learn  to  fly?  Sing? 
Which  get  food  on  the  ground?  Never  on  the  ground?  In  flight? 
Relation  of  birds  to  plants;  how  they  help  each  other. 

Food  Supply:  How  can  we  increase  it?  Which  are  carnivorous? 
Learn  kinds  of  birds  in  neighborhood,  as  belonging  to  one  of  the  prin- 


92  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

cipal  groups.  Sparrows,  finches,  etc.  Prepare  the  way  for  inter- 
mediate work  by  having  clear-cut  descriptions  given,  and  quick  rec- 
ognition of  the  subject. 

INSECTS. 

Kinds:     Beneficial,  injurious. 

Compare:  Habits,  size  form,  color,  parts,  movements,  habitat. 
Study  life  history  of  scale  wings;  egg,  larva,  pupa,  insect.  Collect 
cocoons  in  early  autumn,  keep  in  cool  place  during  winter,  and  study 
in  spring. 

From  outlined  comparison,  study  flies,  mosquitoes,  ants,  aphis. 
How  can  neighborhood  be  rid  of  mosquitoes?  Let  class  secure  speci- 
mens of  eggs  and  wigglers  from  stagnant  pools,  pails,  barrels,  etc. 
Arrange  jar  with  gauze  cover  and  observe  moulting.  When  some 
have  emerged  as  adult  mosquitoes,  place  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  on 
water,  and  note  results.  Have  aquarium  arranged  for  one  minnow. 
Let  class  observe  while  glassful  of  wigglers  is  poured  in.  Which 
method  is  preferable?  Note  differences  in  animal  life  found  in  dark, 
hidden  places  and  that  of  the  open  air.  Which  insects  are  scavengers? 
What  flowers  furnish  food?  Compare  color  of  insect  and  flowers  that 
it  visits.  When  do  the  brilliantly  colored  flowers  appear?  Insects? 
Prove  what  can  be  learned  of  the  senses  of  .insects. 

EARTHWORM. 

Material:  Box  of  loose,  damp  soil  containing  a  number  of 
worms.  Sometime  during  the  lessons,  let  the  older  members  of  class 
place  in  wet  dishes  enough  worms  for  individual  study.  Use  pieces 
of  glass  for  covers  to  dishes. 

Observe:  Shape,  color.  Parts:  Joints,  skin,  head,  tail,  mouth. 
How  does  it  move?  Eat?  What  is  its  food?  What  does  it  eat? 
What  are  worm  casts?  How  do  worms  benefit  plants?  Distinguish 
between  larvae  of  insects,  and  worms.  Note  that  the  latter  have  no 
legs.  Test  for  seeing,  hearing,  smelling.  Show  that  sense  of  touch 
is  perfect. 

SOILS. 

Material:  Handful  of  sand,  seive,  piece  of  granite.  Show  parts 
of  granite.  In  third  and  fourth  grades,  teach  names  quartz,  feld- 
spar, and  mica.  Find  gravel,  silt,  etc.,  in  soil.  Which  is  better  for 
plants?  Why?  What  do  leaves  do  for  soil?  What  do  roots  of  plants 
take  out  of  soil?  Show  what  a  drain  tobacco  is  to  the  soil,  exhaust- 
ing its  fertility,  "wearing  out"  the  land. 

Kinds:  Gravel,  sand,  clay,  loam.  Influence  of  trees  in  affording 
shade,  and  protection  from  winds. 

ANIMALS. 

General  characteristics  and  resemblances.  How  they  benefit  man 
— form  land,  prepare  soil,  remove  decayed  matter  from  water  and 
air,  protect  from  insects,  scatter  seeds,  etc. 

What  manufactured  animal  products?  What  animals  are  fear- 
less; industrious,  skillful;  persevering;  meek;  watchful,  obedient; 


NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE.  93 

affectionate;  sympathetic;  unselfish.  Discuss  instincts  of  animals 
to  hide;  know  direction;  flee  away;  know  weather;  plan;  hibernate; 
migrate.  Animals  protected — by  inconspicuous  color;  attractive 
color;  shell;  odor;  sting;  pincers;  claws;  teeth;  nose;  horns;  legs; 
tail;  voice;  swiftness.  Select  domestic  animals  to  observe  and  study. 
Where  did  first  originate — habits,  structure  as  adapted  to  life,  care 
of  young;  training. 

FROG. 

Material:     Eggs  kept  in  wide,  well-aired  dish. 

Life-History:  Egg,  tadpole,  trace  changes  to  adult  condition. 
Habitat;  parts — ears  (no  outside  opening),  eyes,  pupil  of  eye.  (third 
eyelid),  nostrils,  toes  (no  nails),  gills,  tongue,  skin.  Use  of  colors; 
use  of  voice.  Why  do  frogs  bury  themselves  in  mud?  Live  near 
damp  places?  What  do  they  eat?  Useful  or  injurious?  What  about 
the  egg  would  indicate  the  intermediate  state  of  development? 

FISH. 

Any  live  fish  that  can  be  kept  for  a  time;  wide  dish,  four  to  six 
inches  of  water,  covered  with  netting  guard.  (Only  such  food  as 
will  be  eaten  entire.)  Parts — body,  scales,  head,  eyes,  (no  lids),  gill 
covers,  nostrils,  mouth,  lips,  teeth,  tongue,  fins. 

HEAT. 

Evaporation:  Show  by  experiment  which  air  absorbs  water 
more  rapidly,  warm  or  cold.  What  is  needed  to  turn  a  liquid  to  va- 
por? Why  is  a  breeze  cooling?  How  is  ice  made  in  warm  climates? 
Ways  by  which  plants  keep  out  wet.  Experiment:  Balance  an  un- 
cut fruit  by  a  pared  one;  observe  which  loses  more.  Split  open  ends 
of  various  woody  twigs  or  stems.  Note  which  dries  fastest. 
. .  .Absorption  and  Radiation  of  Heat:  Heated  iron  or  bar;  direction 
of  heat  passing  off;  how  radiators  heat  rooms;  what  becomes  of  radi- 
ated heat.  Hold  object  near  heated  iron;  examine;  how  did  it  get 
heat?  How  was  heated  iron  affected  by  cold  object?  Effect  of  sur- 
face, color,  etc.  Why  heat  tire  of  wheels,  bolts,  rivets,  etc?  Effect 
or  high  polish  upon  a  stove,  shoes,  bottom  of  kettles.  Melting  snow 
— which  first,  clean  or  dirty?  Why?  Effect  of  clouds  upon  frost ; 
why  will  thin  cloth  protect  plants?  Observe  ground  under  trees; 
boards  of  walks,  and  nail  heads.  Where  is  frost  seen?  Why? 

Conduction  of  Heat:  Effect  of  touching  bare  foot  to  carpet,  mar- 
ble, etc.  Blanket  or  sawdust  on  ice;  fur  and  feathers  to  animals; 
double  windows;  salt  on  ice  about  ice  cream;  iron  handles  tipped 
with  wood,  etc. 

CHRYSTALLIZATION. 

Material:  Salt  petre,  bule  vitrol,  alum,  or  sugar  and  common 
salt.  Using  separate  dishes,  dissolve  in  boiling  water,  and  set  each 
aside  for  slow  evaporation.  Strings  may  be  stretched  through  one  of 
the  solutions.  By  placing  single  crystals  in  fresh  solution  each  day, 
it  can  be  enlarged.  Ice  and  snow  crystals;  catch  snowflakes  on  black 


94  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

cloth,  note  six  points.  Are  they  all  alike  in  size  and  form?  Give 
history  of  snowflake.  Use  of  snow  to  plants.  Show  purity  of  crys- 
tals by  mixing  solution  of  alum  and  blue  vitrol.  When  three-fourths 
of  the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  mixture,  dip  the  crystals  quickly 
into  ice-cold  water  and  observe.  Why  did  they  separate?  On  a  very 
cold  day,  let  the  effects  of  freezing  be  studied.  From  dish  containing 
vinegar,  coffee,  or  ink,  remove  frozen  crust  and  note  what  Is  left 
under  ice. 

INTERMEDIATE    GRADES. 

FERNS. 

Material:  As  many  different  kinds  as  can  be  found,  cut  with  the 
creeping  rootstock  attached.  Note  spore  cases,  green  dust,  etc. 
When  the  spores  are  ripe,  place  some  of  the  dust  on  moist  earth  and 
cover  with  glass;  keep  moist,  but  not  wet.  The  minute  heart-shaped 
plantlet  which  soon  appears  is  the  first  state  of  fern's  history.  Ob- 
serve Maidenhair;  stem,  color,  branchlets,  leaflets,  rootstock,  chaffy 
scales,  spore  cases. 

MOSSES    AND    LICHENS. 

Material:  Individual  collections.  Study  capsules,  spore  cases, 
stems.  Note  variety  of  location.  Discuss  value  of  other  plants,  and 
importance  of  peat  mosses  to  people  of  north — food  for  caribou,  etc. 
Compare  with  ferns. 

FUNGI. 

Mushrooms,  toadstools,  puff-balls.  How  do  they  grow?  Where? 
Local  conditions;  differences.  Examine  umbrella  shaped  heads  of 
mushrooms;  gills,  or  tubes;  spores,  tissue.  Which  are  poisonous? 
Edible?  Find  mycelium;  how  remains  alive,  etc.  Make  a  spore 
print  by  fastening  mushroom,  gills  down,  on  paper,  and  shutting  out 
air. 

MAGNET. 

Bits  of  bar  steel,  2^  inches  long,  maknetized  on  a  dynamo  or 
with  a  large  magnet.  Make  magnetic  needle  by  using  large  sewing 
or  knitting  needle.  Suspend  by  silk  thread.  Study  dip  of  needle; 
positive  pole;  negative  pole;  compass;  north  magnetic  pole;  cause, 
use;  declination  of  needle.  Test  for  iron  and  steel.  Show  that  new 
magnet  is  just  the  opposite  of  the  end  that  touched  old  magnet;  that 
unlike  ends  attract;  like  ends  repel.  Make  use  of  needle  in  determin- 
ing direction. 

LIGHT. 

Let  pupils  make  a  prism  if  one  is  not  at  hand.  Use  three  equal 
strips  of  glass;  seal  seams  with  wax  and  cover  bottom  with  triangular 
pieces  of  tin;  fill  with  clear  water.  Note  spectrum  on  opposite  wall 
of  sutiable  screen.  Colored  rays  straight  or  broken?  In  line  with 
sun  light?  Distinguish  colors.  What  is  meant  by  luminous  body? 
Non-luminous?  Difference  in  visibility.  Why?  Good  reflector?  Com- 
pare book  and  glass;  irregularly  reflected  light,  regularly  reflected. 
Primary  colors?  Why? 


NATURE   STUDY   AND   AGRICULTURE.  95 

PEBBLES. 

Individual  collection.  Assort  them  with  respect  to  shape,  color, 
material,  etc.  Where  found;  distance  from  water;  how  deposited — 
water  shallow  or  deep,  running  or  still.  Are  pebbles  like  large  rocks 
found  near?  Surface;  hardness.  Experiment  with  strong  vinegar 
and  limestone  or  pieces  of  shell.  Try  pebbles,  piece  of  slate,  clay, 
sandstone.  Use  of  "clean  sharp"  sand,  mortar,  cement,  etc.  Discuss 
erosion;  banks  and  bed  of  river,  etc.  Learn  quartz,  feldspar,  mica; 
effect  of  glacial  action.  Green — due  to  plants;  yellow — presence  of 
iron  which  has  rusted. 

CLAY. 

Odor,  color,  hardness;  uses,  preparation;  where  found?  In  red 
bricks,  iron  oxide;  effect  of  burning;  disintegrated  feldspar.  Observe 
feldspar  in  granite;  lustre,  hardness,  cleavage.  Moonstone;  kaolin; 
clay  industries  of  Washington. 

MICA. 

Observe  granite,  mica  schist,  gneiss.  Note  hardness,  structrue ; 
flat,  six-sided  forms;  thin,  transparent,  layers;  distinguish  muscovite, 
or  "white  mica";  biotite,  "black  mica."  Discuss  uses  of  mica  in  soil, 
in  commerce. 

QUARTZ. 

Review  crystillization.  Study  some  form  of  quartz  crystal,  ob- 
serving form  of  drusy  quartz,  or  if  possible,  the  sixsided  right  prism. 
Learn  forms;  as  amethyst,  carnelian,  opal,  flint,  etc.  Colors,  hard- 
ness, uses. 

Observe  silica  in  grass,  grain,  etc.,  in  pebbles,  clay,  glass,  agates, 
granite. 

LIMESTONES. 

Marble:  Colors,  structure,  origin;  test  with  vinegar  or  hydro- 
chloric acid,  proving  carbonate  of  lime.  Show  carbon  dioxide  of 
limestone  identical  with  that  used  in  soda  water;  exhalations  of 
plants  and  animals.  Pieces  of  shells,  oyster  or  clam;  scale  deposits 
in  tea-kettle;  lime  not  soluble  when  CO2  is  gone.  Stalactites  in  Mam- 
moth Cave;  stalagmite;  effect  of  iron  in  water;  chalk  (not  sulphate 
of  lime  which  is  used  in  schoolroom  chalk).  White  Cliffs  of  Dover. 
Manufacture  of  lime.  Limestone  in  Kentucky.  What  effect  on  lux- 
uriant vegetation? 

SANDSTONES. 

Kinds:  Brown,  red,  light,  conglomerates;  etc.  Which  hard? 
Soft?  Why?  Grains;  fossils,  stratification.  Cement  of  iron;  silica. 
Test  with  acid.  No  effervescence  without  lime  in  cement.  Effect  of 
pressure  in  conglomerates  cemented  by  lime  or  iron.  Let  collection 
be  made  of  as  many  sandstones  as  can  be  found. 

SHALES  AND   SLATES. 

Stratified  rocks  formed  in  water.  Study  structure,  color,  odor, 
fossils. 


96  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Distinguish  schist;  mica,  hornblende,  feldspar,  chlorite,  according 
to  mineral  composing  it.  Thin  or  thick  bedded?  Note  that  shale 
is  found  below  all  coal  seams. 

COAL. 

Kinds;  weight;  luster;  color,  hardness;  odor;  flame.  Compare 
peat,  coke,  graphite,  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal.  Cleavage,  for- 
mation; fossils;  use  of  plants.  Trace  history,  from  peat  to  anthra- 
cite. Coal  mines  of  Washington,  of  the  world.  Relation  of  coal  to 
petroleum;  the  diamond. 

IRON. 

Kinds;  color;  formation;  hardness;  uses;  value.  Where  found? 
Cause  of  rust;  presence  in  plants;  stain  of  iron  on  cloth. 

CATERPILLARS. 

Collect  various  kinds  and  fasten  in  screened  cage.  Observe: 
Colors,  reason  for  colors;  parts — body,  head,  feet;  rings,  covering, 
simple  eyes,  jaws,  etc.  Segments.  First  segment,  second  segment — 
size,  color,  appendages.  Openings  for  breathing,  twenty-two.  Warm 
or  cold  blooded? 

SNAILS. 

Shell:  Whorls,  apex,  aperture,  operculum.  Animal:  habitat,  hab- 
its, food  use. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

Habitat,  habits,  food,  structure,  life-history.  Eggs:  size,  color, 
shape. 

From  outline  above  study  cricket  or  locust.  Experiment  by  keep- 
ing some  in  school  room,  and  note  food,  amount  and  kind.  Compare 
with  scale  wings,  and  observe  differences.  Food  for  all  common  birds. 

BEETLES. 

Kinds;  appearance,  colors,  covering,  structure,  life-history.  Study 
lady  bugs,  potato  beetles,  and  borers.  Where  most  abundant?  Con- 
trast wings  of  beetle  and  bee.  Are  there  beetles  that  do  not  fly? 
Examine  mouth  parts;  compare  with  grasshopper,  fly,  spider.  Find 
organs  of  seeing  and  hearing.  Enemies — means  of  attack  or  defense. 
Which  are  injurious  to  plants?  Beneficial?  Useful  or  harmful  to 
man? 

DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

Parts:  Body,  skin,  hair,  head,  ears,  eyes,  teeth,  food.  Habits: 
Movements,  disposition,  training  of  senses.  Why  difference  in  move- 
ments? Compare  cat  and  dog ;  horse  and  cow ;  how  feet  are  placed 
in  walking,  trotting,  galloping.  Capacity  of  speed.  Observe  the  legs 
of  rabbits,  cats,  squirrels,  or  mice.  Which  walk  with  feet  parallel? 
Toes  diverging  outward?  Elect  subjects  and  study  from  outline, 
working  out  reasons  for  habits  noticeable  as  being  peculiar;  effects 
of  domestication;  value  to  man;  dependence  upon  man;  duty  of  man 
to  animals. 


NATURE   STUDY  AND   AGRICULTURE.  97 

TREES. 

Material:.  Twigs,  small  branches,  pieces  of  wood  and  bark.  Keep 
twigs  in  water  until  study  is  made  of  buds.  Appearance,  branchlets, 
buds,  bark,  structure  of  wood,  range.  Buds  that  are  naked;  covered 
with  hairs;  with  varnish  or  resin;  opposite  buds;  alternate.  Class- 
ify trees  according  to  soil  and  locality.  Where  do  we  find  willows  and 
poplars?  Maples,  oaks,  spruce,  firs,  etc.?  Life  history  of  soft  maple, 
poplar,  cottonwood,  or  trees  that  can  be  conveniently  studied.  An- 
nual history — effect  of  rain,  snow,  etc. — branches,  buds,  mark,  size, 
shape. 

SNAKE. 

Have  small  snakes  in  clean  glass  jars  for  class  to  examine. 

Parts:  Head,  scales,  eyes,  nostrils,  mouth,  skin,  color.  Renew- 
ing of  scales;  casting  skin;  how?  Bones,  how  connected?  Food,  how 
swallowed?  Observe  teeth  in  single  row;  shape,  points  curved  back- 
ward. Note  that  poisonous  snakes  have  flat,  triangular  heads,  small 
necks,  and  usually  thick,  stumpy  bodies.  Eggs:  numerous,  long,  soft- 
shelled.  How  hatched?  Condition  of  young  ones  when  hatched. 

SPIDER. 

Food,  juices  of  insects;  hibernates  in  nests  of  web.  Examine  webs; 
eggs  (laid  in  little  bags  of  web  in  the  cracks  of  boards,  or  scales  of 
bark,  etc.). 

Parts,  habits,  habitat.  Study  specimens  brought  by  pupils;  note 
differences  between  spider  and  insect;  spider  and  bug.  Experiment 
with  spider  placed  so  that  it  cannot  escape  but  by  spinning  a  web. 
Distinguish  different  kinds;  jumping  spider,  running  spider,  cob- 
web weaver,  orb  weaver,  crab  spider.  Interesting  notes  may  be  ad- 
ded about  trap-  door  spider  and  tarantulas  of  the  South. 

BIRDS. 

Continue  work  begun  under  Primary  Grades,  learning  traits,  hab- 
its, distinguishing  features  or  song  birds  and  birds  of  prey. 

CLOVER. 

Kinds:  Red,  white.  Observe  differences  of  corollas,  calyx.  Find 
stipules,  leaf  stalks,  keel,  stamens.  How  fertilized?  Why  by  long- 
tongued  insects.  Why  import  bumble  bees  where  red  clover  failed 
to  set  seed?  The  beginning  of  a  collection  of  plants  should  be  made 
in  the  grades;  and  with  helpful  suggestions  pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  press  and  preserve  specimens.  By  learning  characteristics  of 
family  groups,  and  being  able  to  distinguish  them,  they  have  a  foun- 
dation for  a  strong  course  in  botany. 

SHEPHERD'S  PURSE. 

Examine  parts — calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  pollen,  pistel,  seed  case, 
etc.  Shape  of  corolla,  Greek  cross,  sign  of  Mustard  family.  Stamens, 
4  long,  2  short.  Observe  seed  pods. 

—7 


98  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Select  twenty  subjects  found  in  locality,  study  and  preserve.     A 
press  may  be  kept  at  school  and  pupils  have  charge  of  the  work. 

METEROLOGY. 

Continue  weather  record,  as  outlined,  noting  local  conditions,  pre- 
vailing winds,  cloud  forms,  etc. 

Advantage  should  be  taken  of  any  peculiar  specimen  that  may 
be  brought,  to  study  it  while  having  opportunity.  An  awakened,  in- 
terested class  find  many  of  these  and  the  course  as  outlined  is  de- 
signed only  to  begin  that  which  the  live  teacher  is  quick  to  supplement 
from  her  own  environment. 
Nature  Literature  : 

Whittier's  Child  Life. 

Longfellow's  Hiawatha. 

Lovejoy's  Nature  in  Verse. 

F.  D.  Sherman's  Little  Folks'  Lyrics. 

Mrs.  Dodge's  Verses  Along  the  Way. 

Margaret  Sangster's  Little  Lords  and  Ladies. 

Wiltse's   Stories  for  Kindergartens. 

Morse's  First  Lessons  in  Zoology. 

Directions   for    Collecting    Insects,    (free),    Smithsonian    Insti- 
tute,  Washington,   D.   C. 

Thirty-six   Observation   Lessons  on   Common   Minerals,   Clapp. 

Nature    Study   and    Life,    Hodge. 

Plants  and  Their  Children,  Mrs.  Dana. 


AGRICULTURE. 


SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES. 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  work  shall  be  merely  a  repetition  of  the 
Nature  Study.     Wherever  a  text-book  is  used,  it  is  recommended  that 
the  outline  be  followed,  as  given  in  text-book. 
Study  of  Seeds. 

1.  How  to  test  seeds.      How  to  preserve  seeds  so  that  they  will  germ- 

inate. 

2.  Germination  of  seeds  in  different  soils  and  in  different  conditions 

of  soil. 

3.  Amount  of  seed  to  be  sown. 

( a )  Relation  of  amount  of  seed  to  size. 

(b }  Relation  of  amount  of  seed  to  the  manner  of  growth  of  crop. 

Study  of  Roots. 

4.  Relation  of  root  structure  to  soil  cultivation. 

(a]  Whether  deep  or  shallow  cultivation  is  needed. 

(b}  Whether  soil  should  be  pulverized. 

(c)  Whether  much  or  little  moisture  is  necessary. 


NATURE  STUDY   AND   AGRICULTURE.  99 

5.  Relation  of  climate  to  crops. 

(a)  How  far  are  the  crops  of  your   section   determined?      (1)    by 

temperature;  (2)  by  humidity. 
(£)  Atmospheric  conditions  in  the  relation  to  growing1  crops. 

6.  Fertilization  of  soils. 

Best  fertilizers  for  the  crops  of  your  section.     Why? 

7.  Study  of  the  physical  properties  of  soils  and  their  relation  to  crops. 

8.  Study  of  insects. 

(a  )  Which  are  injurious,  and  how  may  their  ravages  be  checked? 

(b)  Which  are  beneficial  and  how  may  they  be  preserved? 

9.  Study  of  birds  (as  above). 

10.  Study  of  weeds. 

( U )  Their  habitat. 

(  b  )  Manner  and  time  of  growth. 

(c).  Structure  of  roots. 

(d)  Time  of  ripening. 

with  a  view  to  determining  the  best  mode  of  eradicating. 

11.  Trees,  etc. 
Grafting  and  budding. 
Pruning  and  spraying. 

12.  Study  of  plant  diseases  and  parasites. 

13.  Pollination  of  blossoms. 

( a )  What  is  pollination? 

( b )  Results  of  proper  and  improper  pollination. 

(  c)  Comparison  of  self  pollination  and  cross  pollination. 

(d)  Means  of  pollination. 
(  e )  Origin  of  hybrids. 

14.  Forestry  and  its  relation  to  agriculture. 
Domestic  Animals. 

15.  Horses. 

(a)  Draft,     (d)  Saddle,     (c)  Carriage,     (d)  General  purpose. 
(  e)  Care  and  treatment  of  common  ailments. 

16.  Cattle. 

(a)  Beef,     (d)  Dairy. 

(  c}  Care  and  shelter. 

(of)  Feed.     What  elements  needed  in  food.     Balanced  ration. 

( e )  Relation  of  care  and  feed  to  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  or  meat. 

17.  Sheep. 

(  a  }  Mutton  breeds.     (  b  )  Wool  breeds. 

( c )  Care  of ' Sheep.     ( d )  Benefit  to  a  farm. 

18.  Hogs  (  as  above  ) . 

19.  Relation  of  domestic  animals  to  other  branches  of  agriculture  as 

carried  on  in  your  vicinity. 

Teachers  should  secure  for  themselves  and  their  pupils  bulletins 
published  by  the  Washington  State  College  and  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Pupils  would  be  interested  in  the 
instructions  for  judging  live  stock,  fruits  and  cereals  issued  by  Wash- 
ington State  College.  It  is  intended  that  attention  be  given  to  the 


100  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

actual  crops  in  cultivation  in  the  pupil's  own  vicinity,  and   not  to   the 
theoretical  study  of  crops  which  he  never  or  seldom  sees. 

Probably  no  school  will  be  able  to  cover  every  subject  indicated. 
Those  subjects  most  applicable  to  the  agricultural  industries  of  each 
section  should  be  studied  by  the  pupils  of  that  section. 


DRAWING. 


DISCUSSION. 

Connect  all  study  of  form  and  drawing  as  closely  and  naturally  as 
possible  with  other  lines  of  school  work.  Encourage  especially  all 
attempts  at  sketching  from  natural  objects.  If  a  drawing  is  dis- 
tinctly bad,  try  to  cultivate  more  thoughtful  observation.  The  trouble 
is  most  likely  to  be  a  mater  of  imperfect  observation.  Have  all 
drawing  entirely  freehand,  allowing  no  use-  of  rulers  for  straight 
lines.  Use  eraser  as  little  as  possible.  The  object  is  not  to  get  per- 
fect results,  on  paper,  but  to  train  senses,  mind  and  hand  to  work 
together. 

Make  an  effort  to  have  good  pictures  on  the  walls  and  encourage 
children  to  study  and  discuss  them. 

Encourage  children  to  observe  beautiful  and  appropriate  forms 
in  everyday  objects,  furniture,  household  belongings,  etc.  Start  them 
in  the  habit  of  noticing  how  things  are  made  and  appreciating  what 
is  especially  well  designed  as  to  form  and  color. 

OBJECT    DRAWING    IN    THE   PRIMARY   GRADES. 

The  most  effective  means  of  teaching  drawing  to  primary  pupils 
is  by  example.  The  teacher  must  lead,  not  push;  must  draw,  not 
talk;  show  how  by  doing,  not  explaining.  How  does  a  boy  learn  to 
swim?  (1)  He  sees  other  boys  swim.  (2)  He  wants  to  swim.  (3) 
He  tries  and  swims.  It  is  the  same  with  flying  kites,  playing  mar- 
bles, jumping  the  rope,  riding  a  bicycle,  etc.  They  see;  they  have 
the  desire;  they  learn.  Your  pupils  will  learn  drawing  precisely  the 
same  way  if  they  have  the  opportunity. 

Procure  some  simple  objects,  any  simple  form  will  do;  leaves,  box- 
elder,  seeds,  simple  flowers,  etc. 

(1)  Give  an  object  to  each  pupil  and  ask  him  to  draw  it  on  his 
slate  or  tablet.  Let  the  pupils  begin  work  immediately.  Teach  them 
to  hold  the  object  in  one  hand  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  in 
an  easy  position,  to  look  at  it  and  then  draw,  then  to  look  again  and 
do  the  same.  The  try  is  what  you  are  after,  not  the  drawing.  (2) 
You  step  to  the  blackboard  with  the  object  between  your  thumb  and 
forefinger  and  draw  it  on  the  board.  Don't  talk,  don't  explain;  don't 
say  a  word;  simply  draw,  and  bright  eyes  will  do  the  rest.  Your 
drawing  is  not  for  them  to  copy,  but  to  show  how,  to  lead,  to  encour- 


DRAWING.  101 


age.  The  pupils  see  how  you  draw,  see  the  drawing  on  the  black- 
board and  try  to  do  likewise.  To  be  sure  there  will  be  more  or  less 
copying  of  your  drawing,  but  never  mind,  this  is  a  tendency  inborn 
in  the  human  race  and  is  a  force  that  will  serve  you  well  if  rightly 
directed,  so  when  looking  at  the  drawings  of  each  do  not  judge 
harshly  those  who  have  copied  your  drawing,  but  lead  them  to  draw 
what  they  see;  to  draw  their  own  object  and  to  use  soft  lines. 

Turn  the  object  over  and  draw  it.  There  is  no  reason  why  pupils 
shquld  not  draw  from  two  to  six  objects  in  one  lesson,  and  draw  each 
as  well  as  if  only  one  were  drawn.  Slow,  laborious  drawing  in  a 
class  of  little  ones  is  not  desirable. 

OBJECT  DRAWING  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES. 

How  to  Collect  Objects. — Do  not  ask  your  pupils  for  objects  in  a 
general  way,  but  be  specific.  Suppose  you  have  twenty  pupils,  and 
tomorrow  wish  potatoes  for  each  pupil,  ask  "Who  will  bring  twenty 
potatoes  tomorrow  for  the  class  in  drawing?"  From  those  who  vol- 
unteer choose  one  and  hold  him  responsible  for  the  twenty  potatoes 
on  the  morrow.  Write  on  the  blackboard  a  list  of  objects  you  want 
and  ask  each  pupil  to  pick  out  an  object  that  he  or  she  can  bring  to 
school.  Charge  each  pupil  with  the  object  he  agrees  to  bring,  and 
hold  him  to  the  charge  until  the  debt  is  paid.  A  good  collection  of 
objects  for  drawing  is  very  desirable. 

The  following  objects  that  are  generally  suitable  and  procur- 
able for  drawing: 

Summer  and  Fall  Objects. — Box-elder  seeds,  milk-weed  pods,  ear 
of  corn,  head  of  wheat,  peach  stones,  a  squash,  chrysanthemums,  as- 
ters and  sunflowers. 

Winter  Objects. — Pine  cones,  birds'  nests,  wasps'  nests,  cocoanut, 
banana,  lemons,  leafless  trees,  etc. 

Spring  and  Summer  Objects. — Buds  of  various  plants,  catkins, 
leaves,  grasses,  roots,  dandelions,  pansies^  or  violets,  apple,  peach  and 
cherry  blossoms,  crocus,  radishes,  strawberries,  etc. 

Old,  Worn  and  Broken  Objects. — Bowl,  teapot,  pitcher,  jar,  jug, 
oil-can,  lamp,  candle  stick,  bottle,  bucket,  keg,  waste  basket,  berry 
basket,  umbrella,  hat,  baby's  shoes,  rubber  overshoes,  faucet,  book, 
roll  of  paper,  broom,  skates,  blocks  of  wood.  Mounted  birds,  animals 
or  reptiles  are  also  good  objects  to  draw  from.  Some  small  objects 
suitable  to  hold  in  one  hand  and  draw  with  the  other  are:  A  key, 
fish-hook,  scissors,  top,  knife,  buton-hook,  nail,  screw,  corkscrew, 
toothbrush,  padlock,  buckle,  spool. 

Group  of  Objects. — Hat,  gloves  and  cane  or  umbrella;  plaster  of 
paris  models;  teapot,  cup  and  saucer;  pitcher  and  glass  or  mug;  vase 
with  a  flower;  basket  of  fruit;  pumpkin  cut  in  half;  loaf  of  bread, 
bowl  and  pitcher;  group  of  fruil^s;  candlestick  and  book;  pail  and 
scrubbing  brush;  oil-can,  paint  pot  and  brush. 


102  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

Use  and  Placing  of  Objects. — If  the  objects  are  small,  it  is  best 
for  each  pupil  to  have  his  own  object.  This  can  be  very  easily  man- 
aged with  such  objects  as  leaves,  buds,  twigs,  flowers,  fruits,  etc.  It 
is  not  necessary  for  the  pupils  to  have  the  same  kinds  of  objects; 
each  may  have  a  different  object  and  not  at  all  interfere  with  the 
effectiveness  of  the  class.  The  most  effective  way  of  placing  large 
objects  such  as  those  under  the  head  of  "Old  and  Broken  Objects," 
is  to  procure  boards  about  a  foot  wide;  place  these  across  the  aisles 
and  place  or  group  the  objects  in  the  middle  of  the  board.  In  this 
position  from  twelve  to  fourteen  pupils  can  see  the  objects  plainly. 
Do  not  ask  a  large  school  to  draw  from  one  object  placed  on  the 
teacher's  desk. 

How  to  Draw  Objects. — If  the  object  is  long  and  slender,  first 
draw  the  medium  line;  second,  with  the  unaided  eye,  choose  points 
of  prominence;  third,  roughly  mark  in  proportions;  fourth,  finish. 

When  an  object  consists  of  one  large  part  and  several  small  parts, 
first,  draw  with  light  lines  the  large  part;  second,  add  the  smaller 
parts  to  it;  third,  finish.  For  instance,  when  wrawing  the  human 
head,  do  not  begin  with  the  nose  or  face,  but  draw  the  head  first,  and 
to  the  head  add  the  smaller  parts.  The  recognition  of  the  shape  of 
the  whole  or  part  of  the  object  is  of  great  aid  in  drawing.  For  ex- 
ample, in  drawing  a  cat  siting  down,  *recognize  that  the  shape  of  the 
body  of  the  cat  is  oval;  the  head  round,  and  the  ears  triangular. 
This  simplifies  the  drawing  of  it.  These  familiar  shapes  are  quite 
common  in  objects  if  you  will  but  look  for  them,  and  when  recognized 
are  great  aids  in  getting  the  proportion. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  drawing  irregular-shaped  objects  con- 
taining considerable  length  and  width,  such  as  a  hat,  or  shoe,  is  to 
first  take  the  length;  second,  find  the  width  and  block  out  the  size 
with  light  lines;  third,  find  and  mark  the  prominent  points;  fourth, 
finish.  Almost  any  point  may  be  judged  very  accurately  if  the  mind 
is  concentrated  on  that  point.  We  fail  when  we  try  to  take  in  two  or 
more  points  at  the  same  time. 

When  drawing  a  group  of  objects  such  as  named  under  the  head 
of  "Groups,"  first  choose  a  prominent  point;  second,  from  this  point 
locate  several  surrounding  points  with  the  unaided  eye — the  draw- 
ing of  light  lines  from  one  point  to  another  is  a  great  aid  in  locat- 
ing these  points;  third,  lightly  sketch  in  the  shape  of  the  objects  and 
locate  the  detail;  fourth,  finish. 

Drawing  Box-Shaped  Objects. — The  object  should  be  at  least  three 
times  its  height  away  from  you;  it  may  be  further  away  than  this, 
but  if  nearer  the  object  will  appear  distorted. 

Measuring. — Procure  a  box  (a  crayon  box  is  an  excellent  model) 
and  place  it  before  you;  hold  your  pencil  at  easy  arm's  length  away; 
clbse  one  eye;  let  the  upper  end  of  the  pencil  correspond  with  one 
corner  of  the  box,  and  with  your  thumb  mark  the  other  corner;  this 
gives  a  unit  with  which  to  compare  other  lines.  In  order  to  learn 

v 


DRAWING.  103 


how  to  measure  make  several  measurements  of  lines  and  compare 
them.  In  making  measurements  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  pen- 
cil the  same  distance  from  the  eye  and  not  let  the  pencil  slant  or  re- 
cede in  the  direction  of  the  object.  The  pencil  must  be  kept  at  right 
angles  with  the  arm  at  all  times.  This  is  the  most  important  point 
in  measuring,  .and  it  must  be  observed.  The  general  process  of 
drawing  box-shaped  objects  is  as  follows:  First,  draw  the  nearest 
vertical  line;  second,  find  the  remaining  vertical  lines;  third,  find  the 
courses;  fourth,  finish.  First  step:  Place  the  object  in  position, 
draw  the  nearest  vertical  line  any  length  you  wish;  this  line  (line 
1)  when  drawn,  becomes  the  unit  of  measure  of  all  other  lines  in  the 
drawing,  and  determines  the  size  of  the  picture.  Second  step:  Find 
the  position  of  vertical  lines  by  comparing  the  length  of  line  1  with 
the  horizontal  distance  between  other  vertical  lines,  and  make  the 
same  comparison  in  your  drawing.  Draw  the  vertical  lines  lightly 
and  of  indefinite  length.  Third  step:  To  find  the  corners,  hold  your 
pencil  horizontally  and  pass  it  up  line  1  on  the  object,  not  on  the 
drawing,  note  where  it  crosses  the  corner,  that  is,  how  far  above  the 
botom  or  below  the  top  of  line  1 ;  mark  this  point  in  your  drawing  on 
line  1,  and  from  this  point  draw  a  light  horizontal  line  to  intersect 
the  vertical  line  drawn  in  the  second  step  (which  is  line  2).  Where 
this  line  crosses  line  2  it  will  mark  a  corner;  find  other  corners  in 
the  same  manner  and  draw  lines  from  foot  of  line  1  to  points  of  in- 
tersection. From  top  of  line  1  draw  lines  parallel  with  last  men- 
tioned lines  and  your  drawing  is  complete.  Any  known  point  may 
be  found  by  finding  how  far  to  the  right  or  left  and  how  far  above 
or  below  it  is  of  a  given  point  in  your  drawing.  For  practice  draw 
boxes  at  the  right  of  the  eye,  at  the  left,  above,  below,  above  and  to 
the  right,  below  and  to  the  left,  etc. 

In  drawing  a  house,  barn,  shanty,  shed,  cabin,  tent,  etc.,  look  at 
it  as  a  box  with  a  roof  added  to  the  top.  In  general  these  objects 
may  be  drawn  as  follows:  First,  take  the  nearest  vertical  line;  sec- 
ond, find  other  vertical  lines  as  in  the  case  of  the  box;  third,  find  the 
corners;  fourth,  locate  the  detail  and  finish. 


104  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


MUSIC* 


A  musical  education  can  be  gained  only  through  the  use  of  the 
best  music.  A  pupil  will  grow  best  in  knowledge  of  musical  ele- 
ments through  the  recognition  of  his  faculties  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  developed,  viz.:  from  intuitional  mental  activity  to  reflective 
mental  activity. 

1.  Musical  experience  should  be  the  beginning  of  musical  knowl- 
edge; to  make  it  plain,  a  child  should  learn  by  ear  a  great  many 
good,  attractive  songs,  and  be  able  to  sing  them  well  with  the  proper 
expression  before  he  is  taught  the  problems  that  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  selections  used. 

2.  The  child's  first  study  of  musical  problems  should  be  based 
on  the  songs  that  he  has  already  learned  in  his  earlier  work. 

3.  The  best  songs  make  the  best  basis  for  the  child's  study,  no 
difference  whether  it  be  work  in  the  lower  or  more  advanced  grades. 

4.  A   music   course  based   entirely   on   the   scientific   relation    of 
musical    elements   to   each   other   is   incorrect.      The   correct   way   to 
teach  a  child  to  sing  is  by  singing.     Do  not  set  him  to  learning  a  num- 
bed of  musical  problems,  such  as  the  relation  of  keys  and  the  build- 
ing of  scales,  but  by  beginning  with  a  number  of  songs  embodying 
the  elements  desired  to  begin  with. 

When  a  pupil  has  acquired  a  sufficient  amount  of  skill  in  singing, 
the  staff  should  be  introduced  by  drawing  it  upon  the  board,  using 
it  as  an  aid  in  singing  any  song  that  he  may  know.  The  correct  way 
of  studying  musical  problems  is  to  encounter  them  in  singing  and 
studying.  In  music  training  the  child's  knowledge  of  elements  should 
be  gained  by  studying  them  in  relation  to  familiar  songs  containing 
them  and  not  by  comparing  them  with  elements  which  they  scien- 
tifically resemble. 

By  familiarizing  a  child  with  musical  elements  as  heretofore 
pointed  out  he  gains  a  musical  knowledge  of  the  different  elements 
of  music  and  his  singing  will  consequently  be  musical  and  artistic 
throughout.  In  a  word,  the  way  to  master  the  difficult  problems  of 
music  is  to  become  familiar  with  them  through  musical  experience. 
This  is  the  only  correct  foundation  for  musical  knowledge. 

The  next  step  is  to  study  them  in  their  musical  relation  to  other 
problems  that  are  similar  to  them  in  mathematical  and  tonal  con- 
struction. 

Music  has  two  distinct  phases:  The  spiritual  side,  which  brings 
out  all  that  is  beautiful  and  artistic  in  the  art  of  music,  and  the 
formal  side,  which  is  definite  and  exact  in  the  extreme.  - 

These  two  phases  are  so  related  that  one,  in  order  to  have  a 
thorough  education  must  have  an  abundant  experience  in  each. 


MUSIC.  105 


First  of  all,  in  the  beginning  of  a  child's  musical  education,  the 
songs  should  be  sung  as  art  forms.  The  child  should  sing  with  the 
greatest  freedom  and  in  a  very  natural  manner.  He  should  not  en- 
counter any  of  the  formal  characteristics  of  music  until  after  being 
in  school  at  least  three  months  and  even  though  he  is  led  to  execute 
his  tasks  in  an  exact  manner  as  to  tone,  length,  etc.,  his  work  should 
not  apparently  partake  of  this  phase. 

Although  his  work  should  be  absolutely  correct  it  should  not 
seem  to  be  following  any  of  the  firm  rules  that  must  necessarily  be 
applied.  Therefore,  the  work  of  the  first  few  months  must  be  purely 
imitative.  Much  depends  on  the  start  that  a  child  gets  as  to  whether 
his  later  work  will  be  successful,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  music. 
In  choosing  songs  and  music  material  the  teacher  might  well  ob- 
serve the  following  suggestions:  The  words  and  the  music  should  be 
of  the  very  best  recognized  quality.  The  sentiment  of  the  words 
should  largely  be  something  that  will  appeal  to  the  child  and  be 
child-like  in  character.  Nature,  season  and  home  songs  should  make 
up  the  larger  number  of  selections.  The  compass  of  all  songs  or  ex- 
ercises should  be  within  easy  reach  of  the  child's  voice  from  the  low- 
est to  the  highest  tones.  Any  strained  tone  productions  are  harmful. 

When  singing  without  an  instrument,  as  is  usually  the  case  and 
should  be,  the  sound  of  "one"  of  the  scale  should  be  given  frequently 
from  the  pitch  pipe,  in  order  to  keep  the  pupils  on  the  pitch.  Do  not 
allow  boisterous  singing,  as  it  is  an  injury  to  the  voice  and  destroys 
the  proper  production  of  tones.  Insist  on  a  light,  free  quality  of 
tone. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  limited  space  has  been  allotted  to  the 
subject  of  music  in  this  manual,  only  the  briefest  kind  of  a  suggestive 
outline  of  work  can  be  given. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

The  work  is  begun  with  imitation  singing  and  carried  through  the 
entire  first  year.  At  times  a  few  elementary  facts  regarding  the 
scales,  tones  and  time  may  be  taught  as  a  part  of  the  songs  sung,  or 
as  independent  facts,  but  great  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  under- 
take anything  that  is  beyond  the  grasp  of  the  pupil.  For  example, 
the  scale  may  be  sung  as  an  exercise  or  a  song,  using  the  scale 
names  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  the  pitch  names  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G, 
A,  and  the  syllables  do,  re,  me,  fa,  sol,  la,  se,  do.  This  exercise  may 
be  applied  to  the  songs  instead  of  the  words  learned. 

The  child  should  be  taught  during  his  first  year  to  observe  the 
rhythm  of  his  song  work.  This  will  be  an  easy  and  simple  matter  and 
it  will  be  found  that  he  will  respond  to  this  more  readily  than  to 
scale  or  interval  singing. 

The  work  of  the  first  year  should  consist  of  learning  about  fifty 
well-selected  songs,  on  an  average  of  five  a  month,  ear-training,  sing- 
ing the  scale  and  intervals,  learning  to  find  the  key-note,  note  divi- 


106  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

sion  of  songs  into  phrases,  note  and  mark  the  accented  and  unaccented 
beats  of  a  measure.     No  book  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 

pupil  during  this  period. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

In  a  well-graded  school  a  book  may  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupil  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year,  but  in  a  school  not 
closely  graded  the  book  should  be  withheld  for  another  half  year. 

1.  Continue  singing  songs  by  imitation.  » 

2.  Review  the  songs  of  the  first  year,  after  which  new  ones  may 
be  taken  up.     About  twenty  or  twenty-five  songs  should  be  learned 
by  rote  during  this  period. 

3.  Study  songs  and  technical  forms. 

4.  Study  the  staff. 

5.  Sing  the   simpler   elements   of  the   songs   in   connection   with 
the  songs  of  the  previous  year,  but  making  more  definite  observations. 

6.  Notation — that   is,   eye  training. 

7.  Writing  phrases  or  simple  songs  from  memory. 

8.  Reading  music  from  staff  notation  and  inventing  simple  little 
melodies. 

9.  After  about  three  months'  singing  and  practice  in  this  period 
a  beginning  should  be  made  in   sight  reading  by   giving  the  pupil 
some   simple   song  or  exercise   in   connection   with   any   of  the   four 
keys  of  sharps.    The  work  of  the  teacher  will  be  to  gradually  develop 
the  independent  power  of  the  child  so  that  he  may  attack  work  con- 
stantly increasing  in  difficulties. 

THIRD  YEAR. 

1.  Review  previous  work  thoroughly. 

2.  Introduce   new    rote    songs;    about   twenty    during    the    year. 
These  songs  may  be  used  in  connection  with  related  study. 

3.  Sight  reading.     A  large  part  of  the  work  of  this  year  should 
be  devoted  to  sight  reading;  about  thirty  or  thirty-five  songs  or  ex- 
ercises should  be  used  according  to  the  ability  of  the  class. 

4.  The  work  of  previous  years  relative  to  observation,  eye  and 
ear  training,  following  the  notation  of  familiar  songs,  writing  simple 
songs  from  memory  and  inventing  simple  exercises   should  be   con- 
tinued. 

5.  Study  of  keys  continued  and  completed. 

6.  Study  of  the  value  of  dotted  notes. 

7.  Teach  the  divided  beat;  the  unequally  divided  beat. 

8.  A  study  of  sharp  4  should  be  made. 

FOURTH   YEAR. 

1.  Reviews  of  previous  years  should  never  be  omitted. 

2.  Learn  a  few  songs  and  exercises  by  imitation. 

3.  Compare  and  analyze  songs  and  technical  forms. 

4.  Sight  reading.     More  than   ever   before  the  child's  attention 
is  directed  to  sight  reading,  and  song  study  except  as  he  sings  famil- 
iar songs  for  the  sake  of  properly  balancing  his  musical  development. 


MUSIC.  107 


5.  Take  up  about  two  new  songs  each  month.  Songs  that  will 
introduce  new  and  more  difficult  problems  each  time. 

At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  pupils  should  be  able  to  read  at 
sight  any  simple  exercise  in  any  of  the  nine  keys,  the  work  of  the 
chromatics  being  left  for  the  grammar  grades  with  the  exception  of 
sharp  4. 

In  the  grammar  grades  the  child  is  directed  largely  in  the  study 
of  songs,  but  the  teacher  must  always  be  on  the  alert  to  detect  any- 
thing in  the  work  that  has  a  tendency  toward  the  mechanical  in  time 
to  arouse  the  true  musical  spirit  by  recalling  familiar  songs  and 
singing  them  over  again  as  a  standard  of  correct  musical  expression. 

Never  lose  sight  of  proper  expression  and  shading,  which  makes 
music  all  that  it  really  is.  It  has  been  said  that  "music  is  frozen 
poetry"  and  without  proper  interpretation  it  must  remain  so.  Not 
less  than  thirty-five  of  forty  songs  should  be  studied  in  each  one  of 
the  grammar  grades  besides  other  work  as  more  specifically  laid  down 
in  this  outline. 

FIFTH  YEAR. 

1.  Review  work  of  previous  grades. 

2.  Continue  sight  reading  with  more   difficult  selections  leading 
into. 

2.  Chromatics.  An  abundance  of  songs  and  exercises  should  be 
selected  for  this  study. 

4.  Transposition.     Simple  exercises. 

5.  The  study  of  triplets,  ties,  slurs. 

6.  Meaning  of  musical  terms. 

7.  Definitions. 

8.  Simple  two-part  exercises  taken  up. 

SIXTH   YEAR. 

1.  Reviews. 

2.  Sight  reading. 

3.  Transposition  of  more  difficult  exercises. 

4.  All  necessary  musical  terms  and  definitions. 

5.  Any  two-part  songs  to  be  sung. 

6.  All    rythmical    and   tonal    problems    should    be    carefully    re- 
viewed,  studied   and   analyzed,   including   the   divided   beat,   the   un- 
equally divided  beat,  the  beat  and  half  note,  twice  divided  beat,  tie, 
slur,  triplet,  chromatics,  etc. 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  YEARS. 

All  that  has  been  suggested  for  other  grades  should  be  carefully 
considered  as  applicable  for  these  periods,  and  especial  stress  and  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  really  artistic  production.  Carefully  watch 
the  expression,  tone  quality,  shading  and  all  such  points  as  lend  to 
the  proper  interpretation  of  the  songs. 

The  songs  selected  bay  be  one,  two  or  three-part  singing.  Good 
judgment  should  be  shown  in  the  use  of  the  bass  clef,  that  all  tones 
are  easily  within  reach  of  the  pupil's  voice,  not  allowing  any  strained 
eiforts  either  in  range  or  in  tone  production. 


108  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


"Education  comes  through  what  the  child  does,  and  says,  and 
thinks,  and  feels  in  the  presence  of  the  environment  which  the 
teacher  supplies.  The  teacher  teaches  the  child;  the  child  educates 
himself.  In  being  taught,  the  child  is  passive;  in  being  educated,  he 
is  active.  The  thing  to  be  stressed  is  that  teachers  educate  more,  even 
if  to  gain  the  time  necessary  for  it  they  have  to  teach  less.  Education 
is  self  expression  not  impression  alone.  Every  impression  made  by 
teachers  upon  pupils  should  be  followed  by  expression  in  some  fashion 
from  the  pupils." — "Philosophy  of  Education,"  Herman  H.  Home. 

1.  School  work  should  be  so  planned  as  to  strengthen  the  founda- 
tions of  community  life. 

2.  Both  mind  and  body  should  be  actively  employed  in  education. 

3.  Expression  subjects,   such   as  writing,   drawing,  music,  hand- 
work, etc.,  should  as  far  as  practicable  be  used  in  expression  and  not 
isolated  from  other  work. 

4.  While  the  development  of  the  subject  matter  is  secondary  to 
the  development  of  the  child,  the  logical  unfolding  of  the  same  is 
an  important  means  to  the  child's  development. — "Course  of  Study," 
Nettie  A.  Sawyer,  Primary  Supervisor,  Seattle. 

The  following  outline  is  only  suggestive.  The  wise  teacher  will 
follow  it  only  so  far  at  it  will,  for  her  school,  fulfill  the  underlying 
principles  given  above.  This  course  has  been  planned  considering  the 
logical  sequence  of  the  subject  and  the  best  adjustment  of  the  sub- 
ject to  the  developing  child. 

MEANS. 

As  to  means,  the  whole  subject  is  in  an  experimental  stage.  The 
consensus  of  opinion  is  to  carry  on  all  elementary  handwork  in  the 
regular  class-room  so  long  as  the  material  and  equipment  will  per- 
mit, and  have  the  regular  teacher  teach  this  handwork.  There  are 
two  good  reasons  for  this: 

1st.  The  cost  of  maintaining  a  separate  room  with  special  equip- 
ment in  every  school  is  too  great  in  the  present  adjustment  of  school 
expenditures. 

2nd.  The  purpose  of  the  handwork,  in  the  lower  grades  particu- 
larly, is  the  opportunity  it  offers  for  expression;  hence  closer  and 
more  real  correlation  is  possible  with  one  teacher  in  the  regular  class- 
room under  present  conditions. 

At  the  present  time  the  division  is  made  in  most  public  schools 
at  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  when  bench  work  is  introduced. 
The  age  and  size  of  the  pupils  is  about  right  to  handle  larger  tools 
and  to  be  able,  unattended,  to  pass  in  groups  from  the  school  to  the 
shops  or  cooking  room.  The  chief  objection  to  working  at  a  bench 
with  bench  tools  or  attempting  any  work  in  cooking  earlier  than  this, 


MANUAL  TRAINING.  109 

is  the  difficulty  of  providing  the  equipment  and  organizing  the  school 
for  it.  Consequently  in  many  of  the  cities  and  larger  towns  the 
boys  in  the  above  grades  leave  the  class-room  for  the  shop  and 
special  teacher  and  the  girls  remain  to  take  up  sewing  with  the  class 
teacher. 

METHODS. 

As  to  methods,  the  adjustment  of  any  handwork  to  the  public 
school  has  met  with  most  success  in  giving  it,  for  the  convenience  of 
organization,  a  definite  place  in  the  school  programme,  and  devoting 
a  specified  time  to  teaching  the  manipulation  of  form  side  of  the 
handwork,  while  not  forgetting  the  content  side,  and  the  relation  the 
result  of  this  activity  has  to  the  school  life  of  the  pupil.  In  a  small 
school  the  opportunity  is  much  greater  for  a  closer  relation  between 
form  and  content,  and  the  handwork  can  more  easily  be  made  the  ex- 
pression of  a  dominant  interest  arising  in  nature  study,  literature, 
geography,  history,  arithmetic,  etc.,  and  all  the  child  requires  to  know 
of  the  "how"  of  the  handwork  may  be  taught  at  such  a  time. 

TIME. 

The  time  given  to  handwork  and  drawing  should  be  about  one- 
seventh  to  one-tenth  of  the  total  time  of  the  school  session  in  the  first 
eight  grades,  and  the  major  portion  of  this  time,  in  the  first  four 
grades,  should  be  given  to  such  forms  of  handwork  as  are  based  upon 
the  work  in  history,  nature  study,  geography,  English  and  number 
work.  In  the  high  school  about  one-fourth  the  time  required  of  the 
pupil,  who  elects  it,  is  given  to  drawing  and  manual  training.  The 
organization  of  the  present-day  High  School,  with  its  various  courses 
and  electives,  is  largely  responsible  for  this  time  division,  though 
the  nature  of  the  work,  its  greater  technical  values  and  requirements, 
naturally  demand  more  time  of  the  pupil.  The  time  divisions  given 
above  are  only  suggestive  and  should  vary  with  the  school  conditions. 

FORM. 

The  form  of  handwork  possible  for  the  elementary  grades  is  only 
limited  by  school  conditions  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher.  Any  ma- 
terial capable  of  being  manipulated  by  small  hands  and  with  such 
simple  tools  as  the  pencil,  brush,  scissors,  needle  and  paste  brush  and 
that  has  relative  values  is  good. 

The  following  outline  is  the  one  recommended  for  use  in  the 
common  schools  of  King  county  by  former  Supt.  W.  G.  Hartranft. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  motive  back  of  the  handwork  given, 
comes  from  the  other  subjects  of  the  course  of  study — literature,  his- 
tory and  nature  study.  For  example,  the  things  made  in  teaching 
sewing  are  expressions  of  the  study  of  history,  the  doll  house  being 
the  center  of  interest  to  acquaint  the  child  with  the  significance  of 
the  home  interests. 


GRADE. 


MANUAL  TRAINING   OUTLINE. 


FIRST. 


Paper  folding  and  cutting.- 

Sewing:    Hemming,  running  blanket  flannel  stitches. 

Make  curtains,  bed  spreads,  table  covers  for  doll  house. 

Braiding  raffia  hats,  belts,  mats,  covering  pasteboard  with  raffla. 

Weaving  wools,  raffla  into  rugs. 

Story  of  wool — use  of  shepherd.    Manufacture  of  wool. 

Industry  of  year— doll  house. 

Designing— wall  paper,  rugs,  furniture. 

Clay  twice  a  week. 

Drawing  daily. 


SECOND. 


Raffla  tying,  bags,  hammocks. 

Weaving  raffla  warp  or  wool  into  rugs,  hammocks. 

Story  of  wool. 

Sewing:      Hemming,    running,    basting,    gathering,    overhand 

stitches,  flannel  stitch. 
Designing— rugs,  garments. 
First  idea  of  drafting  given. 
Industry— dressing  a  doll. 
Clay  twice  a  week. 
Drawing  daily. 


THIRD. 


Raffla.    Making  coiled  basket  or  lunch  box. 

Weaving — rag  rug. 

Sewing:    Hemming,  running,  basting,  overseaming,  gathering, 

sew  on  loops,  linen  hem  for  handkerchief,  darning,  mending. 
Story  of  cotton — what  is  a  square. 
Drafting— first  lesson  in  drafting. 
Designing— basket,  rug,  garment. 
Industry— dressing  a  doll. 
Clay  twice  a  week. 
Drawing  daily. 


FOURTH. 


Raffla— basket,  belts,  hats,  bags. 

Sewing:      Hemming,  running,  basting,  gathering,  button  hole 

stitch,  gingham  pillow  worked  with  raffla,  darning,  mending. 
Story  of  flax — thread. 
Weaving  wool  or  rag  rug. 
Drafting — parallelogram,  composition. 
Industry— making  apron  for  sloyd  work,  bags,  to  utilize  stitches 

taught. 

Designing— basket,  rug. 
Drawing  daily. 
Clay  wood  work. 
Construction  once  a  week. 


FIFTH. 


Wood  work:    Construction,  decoration,  carving,  pyrography. 

Story  of  tree. 

Sewing:     Essential  stitches  for  garment  making,  linen  hem, 

darning,  mending,  outline  stitch,  sew  on  buttons. 
Basketry  raffla  and  reed. 

Weaving  wool  into  rug,  raffla  into  pillow,  hat. 
Drawing  twice  a  week. 
Clay  once  a  week. 
Designing— basket,  rug. 
Drafting— parallelogram,  first  garment. 


SIXTH. 


Like  above  with  addition  of  bent  iron  work. 


SEVENTH. 


Wood  work :    Construction  and  decoration. 
Evolution  of  tools. 
Sewing:     Essential  stitches  for  garment  making,  linen  hem, 

felling,  hem-stitch,  darning,  mending. 
Raffla,  basket,  pillow,  hat. 
Designing— basket,  pillow,  wood  work. 
Weaving — card  cases,  purses. 
Book  binding,  construction. 
Drawing— clay. 
Result  of  year's  work— some  completed  garments,  drafted  and 

made  by  pupils. 


EIGHTH. 


Woodwork:    Construction,  decoration. 

Evolution  of  tools. 

Sewing:    Essential  stitches,  French  seam  hem  stitch,  button 

hole,  darning  and  mending. 
Raffla,  basket,  pillow,  hat. 
Designing — basket,  pillow,  wood  work. 
Result  of  year's  work— a  completed  garment. 
Bead  work:    Weaving  silkeline  into  purses,  calling  cases. 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 


As  a  help  to  teaching  this  course  and  understanding  how  and 
what  to  teach  and  how  much  it  costs,  the  following  suggestions  are 
given  : 

All  of  our  state'  schools  are  now  offering  Summer  Courses  in  the 
forms  of  handwork  here  given.  An  attendance  of  one  or  two  terms 
would  give  an  able  teacher  a  good  working  knowledge  of  the  hand- 
work here  outlined. 

The  following  books  will  be  found  particularly  valuable  for  in- 
struction in  the  subjects  they  cover  and  give  in  most  cases  full  de- 
tails as  to  material  and  method  required: 

"The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education,"  by  Katherine 
Dopp.  The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  $1.00. 

This  book  does  not  give  a  course  of  work,  but  deals  with  the 
underlying  principles  of  handwork  in  the  grades.  "Instead  of  numer- 
ous and  narrow  lines  of  often  unrelated  and  specialized  work,  we 
have  here  an  appeal  for  the  recognition  of  the  physical  and  psychical 
characteristics  of  the  child,  with  its  instincts  and  tendencies  interpre- 
ted through  the  experience  of  the  race." 

"Social-Industrial  Education,"  by  Wm.  A.  Baldwin.  Milton  Brad- 
ley Co.,  $1.50. 

"This  book  does  not  deal  with  courses  of  study,  but  deals  with 
the  problems  that  have  presented  themselves  at  the  Hyannis,  Mass., 
State  Normal  School,  with  suggestions  as  to  possibilities  in  the  vari- 
ous handwork  processes."  Hammock  making,  basket  work,  clay  mod- 
eling and  school  gardens  are  some  of  the  forms  of  handwork  dealt 
with  in  detail. 

"The  Normal  Seminar,"  June,  1905,  published  by  the  State  Normal 
School,  Cheney,  Wash. 

This  number  gives  the  syllabus  of  the  course  of  study  for  the 
training  school.  It  is  rich  in  suggestion  for  correlation  and  will  be 
of  great  help  to  any  teacher  in  all  branches  of  the  curriculum. 

"Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools,"  by  Holton  &  Rollins.  Rand 
&  McNally  Co. 

"Primary  Manual  Training,"  by  Caroline  F.  Cutler.  Educa- 
tional Pub.  Co.,  Chicago. 

The  above  are  very  good  books  of  direction  in  detail,  for  the 
work  covered. 

"First  Years  in  Handicraft,"  by  Walter  J.  Kenyon.  Baker  & 
Taylor  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00. 

Gives  work  in  paper  and  cardboard  for  pupils  from  7  to  12  years 
upon  a  very  economical  basis. 

"Plan  Book  Paper  Cutting,"  by  Minnie  George.  A.  Flanigan  & 
Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

"Cardboard  Construction,"  by  J.  H.  Tryon.  Milton  Bradley  Co., 
$1.00. 

"A  suggestive  course  of  forty  models  of  useful  articles  designed 
for  use  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades." 

"Raffia  and  Reed  Weaving,"  by  Knapp.  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  San 
Francisco,  Cal. 


TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


"Practical  and  Artistic  Basketry,"  by  Laura  Rollins  Tinsley.  E. 
L.  Kellogg  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00. 

"A  compact  and  helpful  book  for  teachers.  It  contains  an  out- 
line of  a  course  in  basketry  for  the  elementary  schools." 

"Basketry,"  by  Luther  Weston  Turner.  The  School  Arts  Book 
(monthly)  of  April,  May  and  June,  1905,  14c  per  copy.  The  Davis 
Press,  Worcester,  Mass. 

The  directions  are  very  close  and  concise  and  unusually  well  il- 
lustrated. 

"Hand-loom  Weaving,"  by  Mattie  Phipps  Todd.  Rand  &  McNally, 
Chicago,  111.,  90c. 

Modeling 

"Social-Industrial  Education,"  at  the  head  of  this  list,  gives  di- 
rections for  clay  modeling  in  a  chapter  on  that  subject. 

Bent  Iron. 

A  reprint  of  an  article  by  Henry  Turner  Bailey  that  first  ap- 
peared in  the  School  Arts  Book,  and  is  now  distributed  in  an  attrac- 
tive booklet  by  Chandler  &  Barber,  124  Summer  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Sewing. 

"The  Art  and  Practice  of  Needle  Work,"  by  Catherine  F.  John- 
son. D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

"Mrs.  W'oolman's  Sewing  Course."     Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Drawing  and  Design. 

"The  Annotated  Outlines,"  given  monthly  in  the  School  Arts 
Book,  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  editor.  The  Davis  Press,  Worcester, 
Mass.,  $1.00  per  year. 

This  little  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  in  Wash- 
ington. 

"Text-Books  of  Art  Instruction"  (new  series).  Prang  Educational 
Co.,  113  University  Place,  N.  Y. 

"One  book  for  each  grade.  Very  fully  and  beautifully  illustrated 
in  black  and  white  and  in  color,  the  illustrations  accompanied  by 
text  to  be  read  and  studied  by  the  pupil  and  adapted  to  his  age  and 
capacity." 

BENCH    WORK. 

All  the  handwork  given  in  its  course,  except  bench  work,  can  be 
carried  on  in  the  regular  class-room  by  the  regular  teacher.  Bench 
work  requires  a  special  room  and  well-trained  teacher.  There  is 
not  at  present  any  book  that  covers  the  methods  and  material  of  a 
course  in  bench  work  satisfactorily.  "Bench  Work  in  Wood,"  by 
F.  M.  Ross,  Ginn  &  Co.,  and  "Working  Drawings  of  Models  in 
Sloyd,"  Gustaf  Larson,  Boston,  Mass.,  give  a  graded  series  of  models 
or  exercises. 

It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  bench  work  without  a  skilled  teacher. 
Such  a  teacher  plans  his  own  course  to  meet  existing  conditions  and 
should  not  be  limited  to  a  set  course  of  models. 

MANUAL  TRAINING   EQUIPMENT. 

Bench  work  for  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  first 
year  High  School. 

The  accompanying  drawing  of  a  model  manual  training  room  and 
its  equipment  and  the  specifications  of  furniture,  tools  and  supplies 
are  made  as  definite  suggestions  for  the  proper  equipping  and  es- 
tablishing of  bench  work  in  the  public  schools. 


SCHOOL  EXHIBITS  OF  HANDWORK 

AT    THE 

LEWIS  AND  CLARK  EXPOSITION 


Th\e  accorqpanying  er)gravirjgs  are  from 
photos  takeq  of  t[le  different  school  exhibits 
from  the  State  of  Washington,  at  the  Lewis  ar\d 
Clark^  Exposition.  Th\ey  illustrate  the  different 
forrqs  of  handwor^  outlined  in,  this  course,  and 
also  show  in  a  measure  what  is  being  done  with 
hjandwork^  in,  different  parts  of  the  State  by 
interested  teachers.  Every  exhjbit  h\ad  some 
handwork  ir\  it,  aqd  n^uch  th^at  was  exhibited 
had  a  real  relation,  to  the  work  of  the  school. 


WEAVING  AND  BASKET  MAKING 
SECOND  AND  THIRD  GRADES,  SEATTLE 

Designs  are  original,  and  dyeing  done  by  the  children  from  roots  and  berries 
Correlation  with  History  and  Language  and  Drawing 


BENCH  WORK 
SEATTLE  AND  BALLARD 

Small  tables  and  screens,  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  Ballard 
Chairs,  large  table  and  lamp,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  High  School,  Seattle 


WEAVING,   PASTING  AND  CUTTING 

FIRST  GRADE,  BALLARD 
Original  valentine  designs,  given  as  language  lessons  before  St.  Valentine's  Day 


BENCH   WORK 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES,  SPOKANE 
Mr.  O.  L.  Whitcomb.  Supervisor 


BENCH   WORK 

SEVEis7TH  TO  EIGHTH  GRADES,  WAITSBTJRG 
Chair,  table,  stools,  etc. 


PAPER  CUTTING  AND  BRUSH   WORK 
FIRST  AND  SECOND  GRADES,  CHEHALIS 


SUGGESTIVE   HAND  WORK 
ELEMENTARY  GRADES,  WALLA  WALLA 


DOLL    CLOTHES  AND   FURNITURE  — HANDWORK 
THIRD  TO  FIFTH  GRADES,  CLARKE  COUNTY. 


PAPER  CUTTING 
FIRST  GRADE,  ELLENSBURG  NORMAL 

The  figures  are  cut  out  of  the  black  paper  and  colored  paper  pasted  on  the  back 

of  the  opening;  outgrowth  of  language  work.    Barn  of  card  board. 

Group  work  in  the  Kindergarten  work  on  the  wall, 

the  outgrowth  of  Thanksgiving  work. 


CLAY  MODELING,  WEAVING  AND  SEWING,  BARK  BIRD  HOUSES 

FIRST  TO  FOURTH  GRADES,  TACOMA 

All  material  supplied  by  the  pupils 


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OBJECT  STUDY 
FIRST  GRADE,  STATE  NORMAL,  CHENEY 

This  subject  covers  the  home  occupations,  such  as  those 
of  the  carpenter,  blacksmith,  farmer,  etc.  In  connection 
with  the  farmer's  work  the  pupils  studied  the  animals 
kept  upon  the  farm  and  their  use  to  man.  This  chart  was 
made  by  the  children  to  show  the  evolution  of  raw  ma- 
terial to  the  manufactured  article.  The  weaving  was 
done  by  the  children. 


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MANUAL  TRAINING.  117 

The  consensus  of  opinion  now  places  this  phase  of  handwork  in 
the  above  grades.  The  question  of  equipment  up  to  these  grades  has 
not  been  a  serious  matter  when  considering  the  cost  and  mainten- 
ance. With  the  introduction  of  bench  work  this  item  of  first  cost  and 
maintenance  has  proved  a  formidable  stumbling  block,  for  this  work 
requires  a  separate  room  and  special  equipment,  and  what  is  almost 
of  greater  importance,  a  special  teacher,  one  well  trained  in  the 
manual  arts,  skillful  in  method  and  matter,  who  knows  the  relation  of 
tools,  their  processes,  to  education  and  industrial  life. 

The  equipment  here  given  is  complete  in  every  particular  and 
sufficient  for  any  work  possible  in  the  grades  named  in  any  school 
system.  The  number  of  pupils  to  be  accommodated  in  one  center  is 
dependent  upon  the  number  of  lessons  per  week,  and  their  length. 
Two  periods  of  about  45  minutes  a  week  is  very  desirable.  If  the 
pupils  come  some  distance,  one  period  of  85  or  90  minutes  is  better, 
as  it  does  not  require  so  much  time  in  going  to  and  from  the  center. 
Three  classes  per  day  should  be  the  maximum,  though  a  strong 
teacher  could,  under  stress,  handle  four  classes  part  of  the  time. 

As  to  cost,  the  list  of  general  tools  is  arranged  according  to  their 
importance,  so  that,  when  necessary,  curtailment  may  be  made  with 
least  danger  of  impairing  the  efficiency  of  the  equipment.  Also  if 
a  less  number  of  benches  than  24  were  used,  considerable  economy 
may  be  made  in  the  number  of  duplicates  ordered. 

The  benches  shown  are  very  simple,  strong  and  durable,  though 
made  of  fir.  A  cheaper  bench  could  be  built,  continuous,  in  a  rough 
hanner  that  would  serve  the  purpose.  The  bench  here  given,  cost 
complete,  "in  the  knock  down"  with  ends  glued  up,  and  with  wooden 
vice,  $6.00.  An  iron  vice  is  much  better  (E.  H.  Sheldons,  W.  C. 
Toles,  or  equal),  but  they  cost  more.  Any  handy  boy  can  put  it  to- 
gether. A  well  made  bench  is  self  evident  economy  and  built  singly 
is  an  economy  of  floor  space  for  the  freedom  and  control  of  the  class. 

Further  economies,  dependent  upon  the  service  desired  of  the 
room,  could  be  practiced  by  the  skillful  teacher  n  storage  facilities; 
pigeon-holes  for  pupils,  using  simple  shelves,  teacher's  desk,  etc. 
Also  where  the  number  of  pupils  to  receive  instruction  is  not  suffici- 
ent to  occupy  the  full  time  of  a  teacher,  the  manual  training  teacher 
may  teach  part  time  in  the  class-room  the  regular  work  of  the  school. 
A  teacher  should  be  secured  having  skillful  ability  for  double  service 
with  that  end  in  view.  Another  plan  tried  successfully  in  two  or 
more  small  adjacent  districts,  is  to  use  one  manual  training  teacher 
part  time  in  each  school. 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   A    MANUAL   TRAINING   ROOM. 

Size:  The  area  should  be  from  900  to  1,000  square  feet  for  a  class 
of  twenty-four  pupils,  the  accepted  number  for  one  class.  (See  ac- 
companying drawing  for  details  and  arrangement.) 

Light:  The  windows  should  be  numerous  and  of  full  length  if 
possible,  placed  in  two  adjacent  sides  or  opposite  sides  of  the  room. 
The  light  should  shine  on  the  back  and  right-hand  end  of  bench  or 


TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 


on  both  ends.  Artificial  light  should  be  provided,  preferably  electric, 
in  six  groups  or  clusters  near  the  ceiling,  or  one  lamp  properly 
guarded  may  be  suspended  over  each  bench. 

Heat  and  Ventilation:  These  should  receive  the  same  care  and 
consideration  as  in  any  other  school  room.  The  temperature  of  a 
work  room  may  be  several  degrees  cooler  than  the  class-room  and 
should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  pure,  fresh  air. 

Stock  Room:  This  room  may  not  be  adjacent  to  the  shop  room, 
but  is  preferably  so;  as  indicated,  100  square  feet  is  sufficient.  It 
may  be  long  and  narrow  as  it  is  wall  space  that  is  desired.  Abundant 
shelving  should  be  provided  and  lumber  racks  as  indicated  for  stand- 
ing the  stock  on  end  on  the  floor  and  between  the  pegs  placed  vertic- 
ally to  the  wall. 

The  teacher's  closet  is  for  private  use  and  for  the  storage  of  any 
finished  work  desirable  to  keep.  It  should  be  provided  with  hooks 
and  shelves  and  doors  with  locks. 

Wash  Bowl:  A  wash  bowl  should  be  convenient,  if  possible,  but 
it  is  not  a  necessity. 

Tool  Racks:  These  should  be  panels  of  board  neatly  made  and 
placed  on  the  walls  convenient  for  the  pupils'  use.  About  30  square 
feet  is  necessary.  The  tools  may  then  be  hung  on  hooks  and  cleats 
fastened  to  these  panels.  A  table  shelf  under  one  of  these  racks  about 
15  inches  by  6  feet  is  for  the  use  of  oils,  shellac  and  glue  and  for 
the  use  of  the  oil  stones. 

Black  Board:  The  black  board  should  be  about  4x10,  placed  as 
shown,  where  it  may  easily  be  seen  by  the  pupils  when  at  their 
benches. 

Exhibit  Board:  About  4x12  may  be  suitably  placed  on  the  wall 
and  neatly  made  and  covered  with  a  dark  green  burlap.  The  various 
models  and  other  work  may  be  hung  here  by  means  of  small  brass 
screw  eyes  and  hooks.  This  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  shop,  as  it 
may  be  a  source  of  inspiration  to  the  pupil. 

Demonstration  Platform:  A  demonstration  platform  is  desirable 
on  which  the  class  may  be  gathered  for  class  work.  The  bench  placed 
in  front  of  the  platform  is  to  be  used  by  the  teacher  at  such  times, 
and  by  the  pupil  at  all  other  times. 

Furniture:  The  furniture  comprises  24  work  benches  (see  draw- 
ing), 24  stools  24  inches  high,  1  teacher's  desk  of  usual  pattern  with 
chair.  The  supply  closet  about  15  inches  by  8  feet  by  7  feet,  may  be 
built  in  with  other  shelving.  The  doors  of  same  are  to  be  provided 
with  locks.  The  pigean-hole  cases  (see  drawing)  may  be  built  sep- 
arately or  in  numbers  to  suit  wall  space  and  the  number  of  pupils  to 
be  accommodated.  Three  classes  a  day  for  five  days  is  the  maxi- 
mum, or  about  360  pupils  per  week,  two  pupils  to  use  one  pigeon- 
hole. The  curtain  front  serves  as  a  protection  against  dust  and  should 
be  of  extra  good  strong  quality. 


MANUAL  TRAINING.  119 

Finish  of  Room:  It  should  be  finished  as  any  other  desirable 
class  room.  If  a  basement  room  is  used  select  one  having  the  larg- 
est windows  with  the  best  arrangement.  A  wooden  floor  is  much  the 
preferable  for  pupils  and  teacher  and  admits  of  easily  fastening  the 
benches  to  the  floor.  The  passage  to  the  room  should  be  carefully 
screened  from  the  sanitaries. 

Room  or  Center:.    (See  sketch  and  specifications.) 

24  benches  with  24  stools,  24  inch. 

1   desk  for   teacher. 

Closets,  75  ft.  of  shelving,  exhibition  panel  4x12  inches. 

Wall  shelves,  6  inch,  with  tool  racks  for  general  tools. 

Cases  of  pigeon-holes.      (See  sketch.) 

1   4x10   black  board. 

A  washstand  should  be  convenient  and  storage  space  for  lum- 
ber. 
Tools  for  Each  Bench: 

1   No.   18   Stanley  2-ft.,  2-fold   rule,  No.   2. 

1  No.  50,  0,  2V2  inch  blade,  Sloyd  knife  (Chadler  &  Barger  cat.) 

1  marking  gauge,  Stanley  No.  65. 

1  try-square,  6  inch,  Stanley  No.  20. 

1    %-inch  Buck's  tanged  firmer  chisel,   No.   2. 

(Above  handled  and  sharpened.) 

1  10-inch  Diston's  back  saw. 

1  jack  plane,  Bailey  No.  5. 

1  block  plane,  Bailey  No.  16. 

1  maple  bench  hook. 

1  bench  brush,  No.  20. 

1  Springfield  drawing  kit,  No.  2,  13x19.     (Chandler  &  B.  cat.) 

I  spring  clip  for  holding  drawings.     "Bull  Dog,"  large  size. 
Tools  for  General  Use:     (One  set  in  each  center.) 

6  cross-cut  saws,  Disston's  or  Bishop's  10  pt.  8  D,  20-inch. 

6  rip  saws,  Disston's  or  Bishop's  8  pt.  8  D,  22-inch. 

12  No.  13  Maydole  hammers. 

6  braces,    Spoffords,   7-inch   sweep. 

6  each,  auger  bits,  R.  Jennings,  4,  8. 

3  each,  auger  bits,  R.  Jennings,  6,  10,  12. 

1  set  auger  bits,  R.  Jennings,  13  bits,  4  to  16. 

3  each,  gimlet  bits,  1-8,  5-32,  3-16,  7-32. 

3  each,  drill  bits,  3-16,  7-32. 

3  counter  sinks,  Rose   (^-inch). 

12  screw  drivers,  Champion  R.,  blade  4-inch. 
1  12-inch,  8  pas.,  Disston's  compass  saw. 

1  doz.  brad  awls,  handled,  l^-inch  Colliers  or  equal. 

1%  doz.  extra  blades,  asorted,  ^-inch,  1-8-inch,  for  Webb  saws. 

2  India  oil  stones,  1x2x7,  mounted,   (1  medium,  1  fine). 

4  India  slip  stones,  assorted. 

1  set  carving  tool  slips,  India  medium,   (4  pieces  in  set). 


J20  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

3  brass  oilers  No.  0,  Chase's  pattern. 
2  knurled  nail  sets,  fine  and  medium. 

2  Wing  dividers,  B  and  C  or  B.  S.  and  W.,  7-inch. 
6  10-inch  hand  screws    (Bliss). 

4  hickory  mallets   (R.  head  2%x5  inches). 

4  each  Buck's  tanged  firmer  chisels,  1-8-  inch,   Ms -inch,  1-inch. 

1  set  Buck's  tanged  firmer  gouges,  12  tools,   (1-8  to  2  inches). 
(Above  handled  and  sharpened.) 

12  Carver's  skew  chisels,  %-inch,  No.  2-S.  J.  Addis.     Handled 

and  sharpened. 

12  Carver's  veiners,  1-8-inch,  No.  39-S.  J.  Addis. 
6  cabinet  scrapers,  3  with  concave  and  convex  ends. 

3  flat  bastard  files,    (handled,   10-inch  Nicholson's). 

2  half-round  bastard  files,    (handled,  12-inch,  Nicholson's). 

3  half-round  cabinet  files,   (handled,  12-inch,  Nicholson's). 
2  No.  18  Stanley  T.  bevels,  8-inch. 

2  steel   squares  (   nickle-plated,   12x8  inches. 

2  draw  knives,  8-inch  razor  blade,  carpenter's. 
6  iron    clamps,    Stearnes'    Adj.,    7-inch. 

3  5-inch   slim  taper  files,  1  handle,  Nicholson's. 
2  4-inch  slim  taper  files,  1  handle,  Nicholson's. 

1  bit   file,   Nicholson's. 

6  Bucks'  tanged  firmer  gauges,   %-inch. 
(Above   handled   and   sharpened.) 

2  Bailey  planes,  No.  3. 
1  Bailey  plane,  No.  7. 

1     rip  saw,  Disston's,  No.  12-5  pt.  28-inch. 

1  C.  C.  saw,  Disston's,  No.  12-10  pt.  24- inch. 

1  No.  3  11-inch  Wentworth's  saw  vice. 

1  No.  95  Morrill  saw  set. 

1  grindstone  with  foot  power,  24x2^  inches,  Schofield  or  equal. 

3  1^6 -inch  shellac  brushes,  flat. 

3  1  Ms -inch   rubber  bound  varnish  brushes,  flat. 

18  coping  saws  with  saws,  6  doz.  extra  blades. 

1  pair  cutting  pliers,  Bernard's,  5^ -inch. 

1  pair  4-foot  clamps,  E.  H.  Sheldon  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

I  Plumb's  half  hatchet,  No.  2. 

1  Clark's  expansive  bit,  No.  2. 

1  Langdon  mitre  box,  No.  18. 

1  pyrography  outfit. 

6  varnish  cups  with  covers,   (tin,  pint  size). 

12  Eeagle   school   compasses,   No.    576. 

1  belt  punch,  3-16-inch. 

1  doz.  plane  bits,  each  No.  5  and  No.  16  extra. 

%  doz.  lever  caps  for  each,  No.  5  and  No.  16  extra'. 

1  small  iron  vise,  2^-inch  jaw  with  horn    (Cheney  No.   10). 

1-3  doz.  whisk  brooms. 


MANUAL  TRAINING.  121 

i 

1  Stanley   plane   No.   78. 
1  Stanley  plane  No.  48. 
1  skein  of  chalk  line. 
1  pair  tinner's  snips,  10-inch. 

Supplies  for  Eeach  Center.  (Estimate  for  360  pupils  for  half  year). 
Hardware : 

5  quires  each  sand  paper,  00-1,  l1/^. 

20  Ibs.  cotton  waste. 

1  ball  twine,  1-16-inch. 

2  large  bottles  Three-in-One  oil. 

5  Ibs.  each  wire  brads,  ^-inch  No.  20;  3-8-inch  No.  19;  %-inch 

No.  19;  iy4-inch  No.  17;  IVa-inch  No.  16;  2-inch  No.  15. 

3  Ibs.  each  wire  finish  nails,  6  d  and  8  d  and  4  d,  6d  and  8  d 

common. 
1  gross   each   flat  bright   screws,    %-inch  No.   5;    %-inch   No. 

6;  1-inch  Nos.  5,  8  and  9;  1^-inch  No.  10. 
1  gross   5-8-inch  cap  hooks,  brass. 
1  gross  screw  eyes,  brass,  No.  1214. 
1  gross  screw  eyes,  iron,  208. 
1  gross  sq.  screw  hook,  No.  110. 
1  gross  sq.  screw  hook,  No.  114. 
12  boxes  cut  steel  thumb  tacks    (100  per  box). 
1  quart  Le  Page's  glue. 
1  Ib.  No.  6  erasers. 

6  boxes  cut  tacks,  4,  6,  8. 

24  Springfield  drawing  pads   (white)   for  No.  2  kit.     (Chadler 
and   Barber.) 

Paints  and  Oils: 

1  1-lb.  can  lamp  black  in  oil. 

1  1-lb.  can  burnt  sienna  in  oil. 

1  1-lb.  can  burnt  umber  in  oil. 

1  1-lb.  can  burnt  rose  lake. 

1  1-lb.  can  red. 

1  1-lb.  can  blue. 

1  1-lb.  can  white. 

5  Ibs.  putty. 

1  gal.  boiled  oil. 

1  gal.  turpentine. 

1  gal.  coal  oil  in  spout  can. 

1  2-gal.  can  Columbian  spirits. 

5  Ibs.  shellac,  orange. 

1  %-gal.  can  white  shellac. 

1  1-lb.  can  floor  wax. 

1  Ib.  pumice  stone  powder. 


122  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 

Emergency : 

1  4-oz.   botle  carbolic  vaseline. 
8  rolls   l^-inch  bandages. 
1  4-oz.  bottle  carbolic  acid. 
1  bottle   (small)   liquid  skin. 

Supplementary  Books: 

1  Wood-Working  for  Beginners— C.  G.  Wheeler.  G.  P.  Put- 
nam Sons. 

1  Tools  and  Machines — Charles  Barnard.  Silver  Burdett  &  Co. 
Vols.  I,  II,  III,  "Amateur  Work,"   (Monthly),  Boston,  Mass. 

2  catalogues  of  Chas.  A.  Strelinger  (hardware),  Detroit,  Mich. 
1  catalogue  of  Montgomery  &  Co.    (hardware),  New  York. 

1  catalogue  of  Hammasher,  Schlemmer  &  Co.  (hardware,  New 
York. 

1  "Handbook  for  Lumbermen,"  Henry  Disston  &  Sons,  (saws), 
Philadelphia. 

1  catalogue  E.  H.  Sheldon  &  Co.,  (tools  and  benches),  Chicago. 
1  catalogue  Toles  Co.,  W.  C.,  (tools  and  benches),  Chicago. 

1  "The  Arts  and  Crafts  for  Beginners,"  by  Frank  G.  Sanford. 

1  "Wood-Carving,"  by  George  Jack.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

1  "Elementary  Woodworking,"  Edwin  G.  Foster.     Ginn  &  Co. 

"The  Manual  Training  Magazine,"    (quarterly),  Peoria,  111. 

"The  School  Arts  Book,"  (monthly).  The  Davis  Press,  Wor- 
cester, Mass. 

1  "Mechanical  Drawing,"  Anson  K.  Cross.     Ginn  &  Co. 

ESTIMATED    COST. 

12  pigeon-hole  cases    $  60.00  to  $  75.00 

24  benches  with  stools 150 . 00  to     150 . 00 

Shelving,  closets,  black  boards,  teacher's  desk,  etc.     50.00  to       75.00 

25  sets  tools  for  each  bench,  at  $6.00 144.00  to     144.00 

General    tools    ,  ...       90 . 00  to     125 . 00 


$494.00  to  $569.00 

Hardware   supplies,   about    $      14 . 00 

Paint    supplies 11.00 

Emergency  supplies,   about 1.00 

Lumber,    about    150 . 00 


Total  for  360  pupils,  one  year $     176.00 

Salary  of  teacher    800 . 00 

Ten  per  cent,  depreciation  on  equipment 50 . 00 

.   Total  for  one  year $1,026.00 

The  above  is  estimated  from  Seattle,  for  the  past  year. 

B.  W.  JOHNSON, 
Director  of  Manual  Training,  Seattle,  Wash. 


MORALS   AND   MANNERS.  123 


MORALS  AND  MANNERS. 


The  teaching  of  morals  and  manners  differs  in  severaV  respects 
from  that  of  other  subjects.  In  the  first  place,  these  subjects,  or,  we 
may  say,  this  subject  has  not  been  accorded  a  place  among  the  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum.  To  the  pupil  thinking  of  the  school  work, 
either  this  subject  does  not  occur  at  all  or  is  thought  of  as  secondary 
and  out  of  place.  Even  to  mature  people  and  parents,  this  work  oc- 
curs as  something  provided  for  in  the  Sunday  school  or  the  church  or 
the  home  or  in  all  of  these  and  as  more  or  less  of  an  intrusion  on  the 
serious  work  of  the  public  school. 

This  feeling  is  rather  natural  but  serious  reflection  will  lead  prac- 
tically all  teachers  and  parents  to  agree  on  giving  moral  instruction 
in  the  pupblic  school.  The  purpose  of  the  public  school  is  to  make 
the  strong  man,  good  citizen  and  useful  member  of  society.  To  this 
end,  no  training,  either  in  school  or  out,  plays  a  more  important  part 
than  the  training  in  good  conduct  and  the  inculcating  of  wholesome 
principles  of  life.  The  public  school  training  lasts  through  a  period 
in  the  pupil's  life  when  his  conduct  and  character  are  being  fash- 
ioned and  the  public  school  cannot  escape  the  responsibility  of  a  part 
in  this  work  and  the  teacher  must  not  lose  this  opportunity. 

Another  respect  in  which  this  teaching  differs  from  the  work  of 
the  regular  curriculum  is  that  it  is  dependent  for  its  efficiency  in  so 
large  a  degree  on  training  and  on  teaching  of  which  the  pupil  is 
hardly  conscious. 

In  a  sense,  moral  teaching  may  have  a  secondary  place  on  the 
programme,  in  so  much  as  it  has  a  share  in  so  nearly  all  of  the  work 
and  even  the  play  of  the  school.  It  may  well  be  less  conspicuous 
than  the  regular  class  work  but,  in  the  plans  and  purposes  of  every 
teacher,  it  should  have  a  place  determined  by  its  importance,  which 
is  primary. 

RELIGIOUS     TEACHING. 

Moral  training,  in  the  minds  of  many  people,  is  inseparably  associ- 
ated with  religious  teaching.  This  fact  will  cause  a  certain  degree 
of  prejudice  against  the  thought  of  moral  training  in  the  school  un- 
til the  nature  of  the  work  comes  to  be  understood.  In  the  present 
religious  organization  of  society,  there  is  a  deep-rooted  fear  that 
harm  might  come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  religious  teaching. 
This  fear  is  represented,  possibly  too  severely,  in  our  state  by  a  law 
not  permitting  any  formal  religious  teaching  or  regular  reading  from 
the  Bible.  The  law  should  be  observed  strictly  as  a  law,  which  act 
itself  is  teaching  morality,  but  further  than  this  the  discretion  and 
good  judgment  of  the  teacher  should  avoid  arousing  in  any  way  the 
fear  or  prejudice  which  this  law  represents. 


124  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

THE     TEACHER. 

If  we  are  not  to  depend  on  religious  teaching  for  effective  moral 
teaching,  how  is  the  moral  influence  to  be  wielded?  It  should  be 
understood,  from  the  beginning,  that  the  teacher  is  the  determining 
factor  in  the  training  of  morals  and  manners  in  school.  The  teacher 
is  the  big, factor  in  determining  progress  in  all  school  work,  but  this 
place  is  unusually  large  in  moral  training.  A  boy  may  learn  arith- 
metic after  a  fashion  from  a  teacher  whom  he  does  not  like  or  re- 
spect, but  taking  in  the  spirit  of  moral  principles  is  a  subtler  thing 
and  lack  of  respect  for  the  teacher  may  mar  and  distort  the  effect. 

That  the  teacher,  to  be  effective  in  this  work,  must  be  a  man  or 
woman  of  character  is  rather  easily  recognized.  A  few  persons  might 
suppose,  for  a  time,  that  a  teacher  might  teach  one  thing  in  char- 
acter and  be  another,  might  teach  one  set  of  principles  in  morals 
and  manners  and  practice  another,  but  thoughtful  teachers  would 
see  that  this  work  would  be  just  as  poor  as  the  work  in  arithmetic 
by  a  teacher  who  did  not  know  the  subject. 

There  is  another  essential,  in  importance  second  to  the  char- 
acter only,  of  the  teacher.  The  importance  of  this  essential  has  often 
been  overlooked  and  not  understood.  This  essential  is  that  the 
teacher  must  get  a  hold  on  his  pupils  as  a  teacher,  before  he  can 
wield  a  determining  influence  on  their  conduct  and  character.  To 
get  this  hold,  the  preparation  of  the  teacher  must  command  respect, 
his  devotion  to  his  work  must  show  his  earnestness,  his  skill  as  a 
teacher  must  win  his  pupils'  esteem,  his  generous  sympathy  and 
kindly  interest  must  win  the  good  will  of  all  the  pupils.  In  other 
words,  he  must  be  successful  in  the  best  and  fullest  sense  as  a  teacher 
to  gain  this  hold  on  his  pupils  essential  to  the  effective  moral  in- 
fluence. 

Further  than  this,  to  wield  the  best  influence  in  the  school-room, 
the  teacher  must  command  the  respect  and  esteem  of  the  parents  of 
the  community  and  gain  a  generous  place  in  their  good  will.  The 
school,  if  a  peninsula,  is  not  an  island.  The  school  is  just  one  of 
the  important  factors  employed  in  our  civilization  to  make  men  and 
women  of  our  children.  Co-operation  is  the  word.  To  gain  this,  the 
teacher  must  command  the  confidence  and  good  will  among  the  men 
and  women  of  the  community,  as  a  man  or  a  woman,  a  member  of 
the  community. 

INDIRECT    MORAL   TEACHING. 

When  once  the  teacher  has  gained  this  hold  on  his  pupils  and  on 
the  community,  an  essential  part,  if  not  the  most  important  part,  of 
the  moral  training  of  the  school  will  be  through  indirect  moral  teach- 
ing, the  wholesome  influences  which  the  teacher  can  bring  to  bear 
on  the  pupils'  lives.  While  this  teaching  is  indirect,  the  teacher  must 
realize  its  force  and  see  that  it  is  fully  utilized.  In  the  first  place, 
we  can  hardly  over-estimate  the  example  of  the  noble  man  or  woman 
in  the  school-room,  when  a  strong  hold  has  been  gained  with  the 


MORALS  AND   MANNERS.  125 

pupils.  Who  has  not  heard  children  playing  school  having  difficulty 
in  deciding  which  one  should  be  allowed  to  be  Miss  A  or  Mr.  B  in 
the  play  school?  This  play  suggests  how  much  of  Miss  A  or  Mr.  B 
will  be  woven  into  their  real  mental  and  moral  fabric. 

Environment  is  another  important  factor  in  fashioning  the  tastes 
and  ideals  of  the  pupils.  A  teacher  cannot  control  environment  alto- 
gether but  he  is  likely  to  be  able  to  put  the  modifying  touches  on  the 
immediate  surroundings  that  will  remove  depressing  or  detrimental 
influence.  It  is  fortunate  if  the  school  house  can  be  a  good  one  and 
in  a  good  location,  if  the  grounds  are  good  and  large  and  well  cared 
for,  if  the  school  furniture  is  good  and  attractive.  Some  of  these 
things  the  teacher  cannot  control  but  he  may  be  able  to  wield  an  in- 
fluence in  modifying.  For  instance,  work  on  improving  the  appear- 
ance of  the  grounds  by  the  pupils  themselves  gives  an  impressive, 
helpful  lesson  in  good  taste.  In  the  school-room,  however,  the  teacher 
has  control,  in  the  main,  and  everything  must  be  in  good  taste. 

The  strongest  moral  influence  is  for  the  teacher  to  succeed  in 
having  a  good  school.  By  this  we  mean  a  good  school  as  measured 
by  the  ordinary  standards;  a  school  in  which  the  teacher  is  easily 
master  of  the  situation,  in  which  the  class  work  is  good,  in  which  the 
government  and  discipline  are  good,  where  the  students  are  busy 
with  their  studies,  where  play  is  active  and  full  of  life;  a  school,  in 
short,  which  would  be  generally  pronounced  successful.  The  busi- 
ness-like atmosphere  and  spirit  of  such  a  school  puts  moral  stamina 
and  a  good  wholesome  spirit  into  the  pupils.  The  pupils  learn  law 
and  order  unconsciously  and  learn  to  work  in  harmony  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  school  community. 

The  teacher  should  have  in  mind  the  moral  bearing  of  all  these 
different  phases  of  school  life.  The  recitation  or  class  room  should 
be  pervaded  with  a  wholesome  atmosphere.  The  work  of  the  teacher 
with  the  class  must  be  masterful,  his  attitude  generous  and  sympa- 
thetic. His  attitude  should  make  the  pupils  independent,  free  from 
fear  and  unnecessary  restraint.  His  perfect  honesty  and  frankness 
with  them  should  bring  out  the  honest  and  independence  on  their 
part,  and  his  fairness  and  impartiality  should  maintain  a  feeling  of 
co-operation  and  good  will. 

The  class  work  should  be  interesting  and  appeal  to  the  pupil  in 
such  a  way^  that  he  will  study  in  the  preparation  of  his  lessons.  A 
pupil  interested  in  his  work  is  free  from  a  large  part  of  the  evils 
so  difficult  to  keep  out  of  school  life. 

The  government  of  the  school  must  have  for  its  immediate  aim 
the  securing  of  conditions  favorable  to  the  working  out  of  the  pur- 
pose of  the  school.  The  ultimate  aim  of  government  and  discipline 
should  be  voluntary  good  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and  in- 
dependent responsibility. 

The  teacher  should  also  concern  himself  with  the  play  of  the 
pupil.  With  the  younger  pupils, 'the  play  is  a  very  large  part  of  their 


126  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

school  life.  With  all  of  the  pupils,  it  is  an  important  part  of  the 
school  life.  Play  will  reveal  to  the  keen  teacher  the  characteristics 
and  individualities  of  the  pupils  which  he  may  not  understand  in  any 
other  way.  Taking  an  interest  in  games  or  play  or  even  taking  part 
in  their  play  often  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  determining  the 
spirit  of  the  pupils  and  directing  their  attitude  toward  one  another 
winch  is  not  furnished  in  any  other  way. 

The  associations  of  the  pupils  are  among  the  important  influences 
on  their  characters  in  the  school.  The  teacher  may  do  much  toward 
determining  the  best  associations  for  the  individual  pupils. 

All  of  these  things  then,  that  go  to  make  up  a  successful  school 
measured  simply  as  a  school,  develop  unconsciously  to  the  pupil  those 
manly  traits  which  form  the  basis  of  character.  If  the  teacher  feels 
that  he  has  not  had  enough  time  to  give  direct  moral  instruction,  he 
will  find,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  that  helpful  moral  influence  has 
been  exerted  in  doing  the  regular  school  work  when  done  after  the 
highest  standards. 

DIRECT    INSTRUCTION. 

Besides  the  moral  influence  through  the  regular  work  of  the  school, 
the  teacher  may  help  the  students  in  their  tastes  and  ideals  by 
methods  of  which  he  is  more  conscious.  The  most  direct  way  is  through 
talks  on  topics  of  tastes  and  morals.  Sometimes  these  talks  may  be 
a  little  more  formal,  with  a  place  in  the  programme  reserved  for  them. 
Sometimes  they  may  be  informal  and  suggested  by  some  particular 
action  or  circumstance.  The  object  of  these  talks  should  be  to  give 
the  students  a  conscious  understanding  of  the  moral  principles  in- 
volved in  the  conduct  which  they  have  been  led  to  take  on  more  01 
less  unconsciously. 

Each  school  and  perhaps  each  teacher  should  determine  the  best 
time  and  method  of  giving  direct  talks  on  themes  of  this  kind. 

A  little  less  direct  instruction  may  be  given  and  yet  given  with 
a  conscious  plan  and,  with  the  youngest  students,  various  drills  and 
movements  may  be  used  which  will  give  them  self-control,  community 
of  action  and  some  of  the  simpler  habits  which  they  need. 

Pictures  may  be  used  that  will  convey  and  impress  their  respec- 
tive lessons  of  patriotism,  self-sacrifice,  heroism  and  the  various  vir- 
tues. Some  choice  specimens,  both  in  the  way  of  pictures  and  works 
of  art,  may  be  used  in  the  room  itself  both  to  convey  a  lesson  in  its 
meaning  and  also  to  serve  as  ornaments  to  cultivate  go<5d  taste. 

To  the  same  end,  songs  may  be  used  in  school.  Part  of  the  good 
effects  of  singing  in  school  is  easily  defined  and  there  are  even  other 
effects  that  are  helpful  and  elevating  in  ways  more  difficult  to  define. 

Attractive  stories  may  be  used  with  discrimination,  which  will 
carry  home  to  the  pupil  a  teaching  that  might  not  reach  him  in  a 
more  direct  and  abstract  way.  The  teacher  must  fit  the  selection  to 
the  pupils,  making  this  distinction  that  he  may  use  to  good  advantage 
fairy  tales,  fables,  mythology,  maxims,  proverbs  and  miscellaneous 
stories,  all  eligible  through  their  message. 


MORALS  AND   MANNERS.  J27 

In  much  the  same  way,  though  with  the  moral  teaching  taking  a 
more  secondary  place,  the  material  of  the  lesson  can  frequently  be 
utilized.  The  work  in  history  will  be  rather  helped  than  hindered 
by  impressing  the  lessons  of  heroism,  of  patriotism,  of  devotion  to 
principle  recorded  in  the  text.  Literature  has  foV  its  material  the 
hopes  and  sentiments  and  ideals,  from  almost  every  page  of  which 
helpful  lessons  may  be  gleaned  by  the  pupil  under  the  direction  of 
the  teacher.  Science  furnishes  knowledge  but  also  lessons  of  accur- 
acy and  truth,  and  so  it  is  with  practically  all  of  the  subjects  in  the 
course.  The  themes  that  may  be  brought  up  in  formal  talks,  supple- 
mented by  those  that  are  suggested  in  the  regular  work,  cover  a  wide 
range  of  the  principles  of  conduct  and  character  which  would  be  of 
most  benefit  to  the  pupil  in  school. 

Various  celebrations,  too,  would  supplement  the  regular  work  of 
the  school.  Thanksgiving  day  would  suggest  its  lessons  and,  en- 
forced by  the  actions  of  the  officials  of  the  State  and  Nation,  Arbor 
day  would  have  its  suggestions  of  beauty  and  good  taste  and  fore- 
sight and  public  spirit.  Memorial'  day  would  give  its  teaching  of 
patriotism  and  the  cost  of  a  nation. 

In  direct  teaching,  the  teacher  should  take  certain  caution  against 
things  which  might  mar  or  annul  the  effect  of  the  teaching.  The 
teacher  should  not  "preach."  The  views  expressed  by  the  teacher 
should  be  so  generous  and  discreet  as  not  to  arouse  prejudice.  The 
prejudice  aroused  by  what  was  felt  in  the  community,  as  biased  re- 
ligious teaching,  might  more  than  offset  the  good  done  by  the  teach- 
ing. The  teacher  must  not,  either,  have  a  stock  of  moral  food  which 
he  feels  bound  to  work  off  on  his  pupils  regradless  of  their  needs  and 
regradless  of  what  part  of  his  teaching  they  are  making  their  own. 

THE   CHILD. 

In  applying  these  various  methods  of  moral  teaching  and  train- 
ing the  first  consideration  is  the  child  itself.  As  in  the  other  work 
of  the  school,  it  is  difficult  to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  individual 
pupil.  That  must  be  done  as  far  as  practicable  and  that  will  be  the 
test,  more  or  less,  of  the  success  of  the  work,  but  there  are  many 
things  common  to  the  average  child,  both  on  entering  school  and  to 
children  in  the  respective  grades  of  the  school.  The  teacher  then 
should  study  the  moral  equipment  of  the  child  at  these  several  stages. 
It  is  noticeable  that  the  child  first  entering  school  is  largely  actuated 
by  impulse  and  that  its  conscious  sympathy  goes  little  beyond  itself. 
Its  knowledge  of  the  whys  and  wherefores  of  conduct  is  very  slight. 
The  work  of  the  first  grade  then  must  be  fitted  to  the  child  with 
this  meagre  equipment  and  with  the  capacity  revealed  to  the  observing 
teacher.  A  good  environment  will  have  its  effect  at  this  stage.  Vari- 
ous concert  drills  and  movements  will  furnish  their  training.  Sing- 
ing in  concert  will  leave  its  impress  and  the  simple  beginnings  of 
habits  and  conduct  can  be  made.  * 


j[28  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

With  the  same  study  of  the  pupil  and  its  development  in  the  differ- 
ent stages,  the  work  can  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  different 
grades..  The  work  of  each  grade,  as  in  the  regular  lessons,  should 
be  built  on  the  work  preceding. 

Not  only  should  observations  be  made  as  to  what  the  equipment 
of  the  child  is  on  entering  the  school  and  at  its  different  stages  but 
careful  consideration  should  be  given  as  to  the  equipment  that  the 
child  should  have  on  leaving  school.  The  child  should  be  regarded 
in  all  school  work  both  as  a  child  and  as  a  prospective  man  or  woman. 
We  wish  the  child  to  take  on  the  virtues  of  life  and  avoid  the  evils, 
form  good  habits  and  avoid  bad  habits  and,  finally,  we  want  the 
things  that  go  to  make  up  character.  The  character  of  today  is  the 
positive  character  of  force  as  opposed  to  the  passively  good.  Good 
moral  character,  too,  should  be  marked  by  a  willingness  to  conform 
to  the  ideas  of  law  and  order  with  reference  to  society  and  to  the 
State.  Character  likewise  should  be  secured  by  a  knowledge  of  moral 
principles  and  discriminating  moral  judgments  and,  further  than 
this,  the  man  of  moral  character,  should  acquire  an  independence  and 
individuality  capable  of  continuous  growth. 

Perhaps  caution  should  be  suggested  in  following  out  our  plans  of 
teaching  morals  and  particularly  of  teaching  manners  to  our  pupils. 
The  teacher  should  avoid  making  the  pupils  self-conscious  and  arti- 
ficial in  their  bearing  and  conduct.  With  the  younger  pupils  par- 
ticularly, the  conduct  can  be  moulded  in  right  lines  while  the  child 
preserves  its  naturalness. 

MOTIVES. 

The  motives  to  be  appealed  to  in  the  child  in  the  different  grades 
of  its  development  will  have  to  be  considered  carefully.  When  the 
child  first  enters  school,  its  actions  will  be  governed  by  the  teacher's 
authority,  just  as  it  has  obeyed  its  parents.  It  does  a  given  thing 
because  it  is  asked  or  told  by  the  teacher.  For  a  time  it  accepts  a 
thing  as  right  because  the  teacher  says  the  thing  is  right.  This  is 
a  security  for  the  child,  but  its  own  faculties  ought  to  be  brought  into 
play  as  they  develop.  An  appeal,  at  the  first  in  simple  matters,  may 
be  made  to  the  child's  taste.  It  can  distinguish  between  what  is 
pretty  and  what  is  ugly,  between  the  attractiveness  of  what  is  clean 
and  of  that  which  is  dirty  and,  with  some  directing,  between  simple 
actions  that  are  becoming  and  those  not  becoming. 

Personal  interest  may  be  appealed  to.  The  child  can  be  made  to 
see  that  it  will  profit  by  good  conduct,  by  study,  by  obedience,  by  reg- 
ular attendance,  by  truthfulness,  by  politeness.  This  is  not  the  high- 
est motive  but  it  is  an  important  one  at  all  times  and  it  will  have 
weight  with  pupils  at  a  time  when  they  do  not  take  in  the  highest 
motive,  to  do  right  because  it  is  right. 

The  highest  motive  and  the  last  to  develop  is  that  one  of  doing 
right  because  it  is  right. 

In  dividing  the  work  for  the  different  grades,  it  is  not  so  import- 


MORALS  AND  MANNERS.  129 

ant  what  topic  of  conduct  we  are  presenting  to  the  pupil  as  it  is  to 
understand  by  what  motives  he  is  capable  of  being  actuated. 

These  various  motives  can  be  appealed  to,  first,  in  regard  to 
things  which  come  in  the  child's  experience.  Abstract  principles  of 
conduct  or  morals  will  not  mean  much  to  the  child  at  first.  The  vir- 
tues and  vices  considered  should  be  largely  those  of  the  child's  school 
life.  It  will  not  mean  much  to  the  child  of  seven  to  present  to  it  that 
men  should  pay  their  honest  debts  but  it  can  be  brought  to  see  rather 
plainly  that  the  pencil  borrowed  from  the  girl  across  the  aisle  should 
be  returned.  Hence,  in  arranging  topics  for  the  different  grades, 
rather  arbitrary  and  artificial  at  best,  the  topics  for  the  earlier 
grades  should  be  confined  to  the  child's  experiences  in  school  or  at 
the  time  of  attending  school.  The  topics  of  the  later  grades  should 
be  suggested  by  these  experiences  or  involve  similar  principles  to  be 
illustrated  or  explained  by  the  experiences  and  observations  in  school 
life. 

COURSE    OF    TRAINING. 

No  attempt  is  made  here  to  have  a  complete  list  of  topics  in  morals 
and  manners.  Many  things  omitted  are  important  but  their  omission 
here  is  not  so  important.  The  important  thing  after  all  is  to  help 
lead  the  pupil  to  desire  to  do  what  is  right  and  becoming,  to  become 
capable  of  sound  moral  judgments  and  good  taste  and  he  is  then 
ready  to  face  new  questions  and  situations  as  they  arise. 

RELIGIOUS   TEACHING. 

If  the  teacher  should  feel  that  he  could  do  still* more  good  if  he 
felt  free  to  read  the  Bible  and  conduct  religious  exercises  in  the 
school,  the  corresponding  opportunity  may  be  taken  advantage  of,  if 
he  will  properly  identify  himself  in  the  interests  of  the  community. 
If  the  teacher  has  the  hold  on  the  pupils  that  we  have  spoken  of, 
the  mere  fact  that  he  attends  church  regularly  will  show  his  pupils 
his  attitude  -toward  the  religious  life.  In  addition  to  this,  the  op- 
portunity will  seldom  be  wanting  for  him  to  take  part  in  the  Sun- 
day school  work,  through  which  he  can  influence  directly  the  religious 
life  of  the  pupils.  He  may  feel  that  he  is  not  hired  to  do  all  these 
things.  He  is  right  in  that  such  things  can  never  be  specified  in  the 
contract  but,  if  he  look  upon  the  leter  of  the  contract  as  a  secondary 
things  and  the  opportunity  for  character  building  as  the  primary 
things,  then  his  whole  serious  thought  will  be  of  touching  the  lives  of 
•  his  pupils  in  whatever  way  and  at  whatever  time  he  may  be  helpful. 

OUTLINE. 

FIRST  GRADE. 

1.  Environment,  teacher's  example    (all  grades). 

2.  Drills  in  marching,  concert  exercises,  concert  singing  and  ac- 
tion  songs,  with  object  of  teaching  the  ways  of  school,  conformity, 
self-control  and  obedience. 

—9 


130  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


3.  Pupils    occupied    at    their    seats    with    pencils,    cards,    sticks, 
straws   and   blocks — one   step    removed   from   kindergarten. 

4.  Conversational   talks    for   mutual    acquaintance   on   obedience, 
order,  quiet  and  relations  to  other  children. 

5.  Note:     Method,  directing  rather  than  instruction  or  discussion. 

SECOND    GRADE. 

1.  Plan  of  procedure  much  the  same  as  with   first  grade,  with 
variations  in  methods  and  appeals  to  additional  motives.    Work  to  be 
based  on  results  of  first  year. 

2.  Conversational  talks,  to  understand  individual  pupils  and  win 
their  confidence,  on  politeness  to   their  teacher,  to   one  another,   on 
neighborliness  and  generosity  toward  one  another,  unselfishness,  kind- 
ness, gratitude  and  other  qualities  suggested  by  the  school  relations. 

3.  These   talks,    kept    definite   and   concrete,    are    to    be    supple- 
mented and  reinforced  by  directing  the  pupils  in  doing  things  that 
illustrate  the  principles  taught,  to  loan  one  another  a  pencil  or  play- 
thing, to  wait  for  one  another  to  use  an  eraser  first,  to  give  the  one 
called  upon  a  full  chance  to   answer  a  question  and  in  the  proper 
conduct  in  school. 

4.  The  talks  might  be  supplemented  further  by  simple  stories. 

THIRD  GRADE. 

1.  Simple  school  virtues  reinforced,  as  conformity  to  the  ways  of 
the   school,   obedience,   politeness   in    school,    attendance,   punctuality, 
quiet,  attention,  business  at  the  seats. 

2.  Direction  to  be  given  on  behavior  on  the  way  to  school,  po- 
liteness to  strangers,  to  older  persons,  to  guests  at  the  school. 

3.  Children   to  be  taught   fairness   on  the   playground,   honesty, 
truthfulness,  frankness. 

4.  Simple  moral  stories  and  fairy  tales  may  be  used  to  illustrate 
and    impress    moral    principles. 

FOURTH    GRADE. 

1.  Definite  instruction  about  cleanliness  and  neatness,   with   re- 
ference to  one's  personal  appearance,  clothing,  desk,  school  room. 

2.  Instruction  in  regard  to  care  of  property  of  the  school,  public 
property  and   other   people's  property.     For  example,   pupils   should 
not  mark  or  cut  with  a  knife  on  a  desk,  building  or  fence. 

3.  Pupils   should   be   taught   to   be   considerate   toward   one   an- 
other.    No  pupil  should  be  rude  toward  any  other  pupil  in  school  or 
consciously  hurt  the  feelings  of  any  pupil,  whether  poorly  clothed,  de- 
formed or  dull. 

4.  Pupils  might  be  put  on  their  guard  against  tatling,  bad  lan- 
guage and  the  vices  incident  to  school  life;  the  boys,  for  example, 
against  cigarette  smoking. 


MORALS   AND  MANNERS.  131 

FIFTH    GRADE. 

1.  Practice    of    school    virtues    already    learned,    enforced    by    a 
more  prominent  appeal  to  reason  and  judgment. 

2.  Pupils   should   be   directed   toward    voluntary    good    conduct, 
self-accountability  and  personal  responsibility. 

3.  Explanations  of  the  relations  of  good  morals  and  good  health. 

4.  Fables  and  stories  illustrating  individual  virtues  and  vices. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

1.  Courteous   attitude   toward   teacher   and   helpful   attitude   to- 
ward younger  pupils. 

2.  Talks  on  study,  industry,  purpose,  self-reliance. 

3.  Warning  against  envy,  jealousy,  talking  about  one  another. 

4.  Good  stories  from  biography  and  mythology. 

SEVENTH   GRADE. 

1.  Practice   of   school    virtues,   with   more   prominent   appeal    to 
proper  pride,   self-respect   and  moral  motives. 

2.  Explanation  of  difference  between  grades  (marks)   and  attain- 
ment, between  reputation  and  character. 

3.  Ideas    of   justice,    duties    toward    schoolmates,    toward   neigh- 
bors, toward  fellow-men. 

4.  Direct   pupils   in   some   elevating   and   interesting   reading   to 
be  done  by  themselves. 

EIGHTH   GRADE. 

1.  Qualities   to   be   sought — independence    of    conduct,     self-reli- 
ance, self-control,   preparatory  to   entering  High    School,   with  bear- 
ing which  younger  pupils  may  follow. 

2.  More  formal  explanation  of  the  social  usages  and  good  forms 
that  would  concern  a  boy  or  girl  of  thirteen  or  fourteen. 

3.  Increased   confidence   extended   by   teacher. 

4.  Higher  grade  of  reading. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

How  to  Teach  Manners  in  the  School-room,  by  Julia  M.  Dewey, 
Kellogg  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  50c.  Helpful  in  suggesting  methods  of  hand- 
ling this  subject  for  the  youngest  pupils. 

School  management,  White,  American  Book  Co.,  $1.00.  Good  lists 
of  the  virtues,  outlines  of  moral  lessons  and  lists  of  reading. 

Moral  Instruction  of  Children,  Alder,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  $1.50. 
Good  discussion  of  duties  and  classification  of  reading  matter  to  be 
used  in  school. 

Moral  Education,  Edward  Howard  Griggs,  B.  W.  Huebsch,  N. 
Y.,  $2.00.  Sane,  sensible  and  practical  teaching,  with  rather  full 
bibliography. 


132  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


GLEANINGS  FROM  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEEE  OF  FIFTEEN. 


Reading : 

"After  the  second  year,  one  lesson  each  day  for  the  entire  eight 
years."  (p.  89.) 

"After  the  third  year,  reading  lessons  should  be  given  of  selec- 
tions from  classic  authors,  with  reference  to  (a)  elocution,  (b) 
grammatical  peculiarities,  (c)  literary  contents."  (p.  89.) 

"In  composition  work,  reading  lessons  will  give  matter  for  liter- 
ary style,  geography  for  scientific  style,  and  arithmetic  for  a  busi- 
ness style."  (p.  92.) 

Language : 

"The  oral  grammar  lessons  from  the  first  year  to  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  should  deal  chiefly  with  the  use  of  language,  gradually  in- 
troducing the  grammatical  technique."  (p.  91.) 

"The  punctuation,  spelling,  syntax,  penmanship,  choice  of  words, 
and  style  should  not,  it  is  true,  be  made  a  matter  of  criticism  in 
connection  with  the  other  lessons,  but  only  in  the  language  lesson 
proper.  But  the  pupil  will  learn  language  all  the  same,  by  the  written 
and  oral  recitation."  (p.  91.) 

"A  frequent  error  is  the  practice  of  making  every  recitation  a 
language  lesson,  and  interrupting  the  arithmetic,  geography,  history, 
literature,  by  calling  the  pupil's  attention  abruptly  to  something  in 
the  form  of  his  -expression."  (p.  96-7.) 

"The  faulty  English  should  be  criticized  as  showing  confusion  of 
thought  or  memory,  and  should  be  corrected  in  this  sense.  But  sole- 
cisms of  speech  should  be  silently  noted  by  the  teacher  for  discussion 
in  the  regular  language  lesson."  (p.  102.) 

"Technical-  grammar  can  never  educate  the  child  in  the  use  of 
higher  and  better  English."  (p.  48.) 

Literature  : 

"The  chief  esthetic  training  of  the  elementary  school  is  the  study 
of  fine  selections  of  prose  and  verse.  These  may  be  intensified  by  the 
use  of  pictures."  (p.  48.) 

"Literature  is  artistic  according  to  the  fullness  with  which  it  ex- 
presses some  phase  of  soul-experience."  (p.  47.) 

Miscellaneous : 

"Grammar  demonstrates  its  title  to  the  first  place  in  the  seven 
liberal  arts  by  its  use  as  a  discipline  in  analysis,  in  logic,  and  in 
classification."  (p.  48.) 

"Side  by  side  with  language  study  is  the  study  of  mathematics 
in  the  schools,  claiming  the  second  place  of  importance  of  all  stud- 
ies." (p.  52.) 

"The  higher  moral  qualities  of  truth-telling  and  sincerity  are 
taught  in  every  class  that  lays  stress  on  accuracy  of  statement." 
(P.  12.) 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  EXAMINATIONS.  133 

"Natural  science  claims  a  place  in  the  elementary  school,  not  so 
much  as  a  disciplinary  study,  as  a  training  in  habits  of  observation 
and  in  the  use  of  the  technique  by  which  such  sciences  are  ex- 
pounded, (p.  69.) 

"Thus  the  pedagogical  order  is  not  always  the  logical,  or  scientific 
order.  A  first  course  should  be  given  in  botany,  zoology,  and  physics, 
so  as  to  treat  of  the  structure  of  familiar  plants  and  animals,  and 
the  explanation  of  the  physical  phenomena  as  seen  in  the  child's  play- 
things, domestic  machines,  etc."  (p.  69.) 

"The  overcultivation  of  the  verbal  memory  tends  to  arrest  the 
growth  of  critical' attention  and  reflection."  (p.  49.) 

Staple  Branches  in  Their  Order: — "Grammar,  literature,  arith- 
metic, geography,  and  history  are  the  five  branches  upon  which  the 
disciplinary  work  of  the  elementary  school  is  concentrated."  (p.  67.) 

"Most  practical  knowledge  is  knowledge  of  human  nature." 
(p.  47.) 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  EXAMINATIONS. 


Under  legislative  act  of  1903  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction  is  given  power  to  prescribe  uniform  rules  and  regula- 
tions for  grammar  school  examinations.  Jn  accordance  with  the 
authority  thus  granted,  the  following  regulations  have  been  an- 
nounced : 

1.  Three   examinations  each  year  will  be  held,  as  follows: 

(a)  The  last  week  in  August. 

(b)  The  third  Thursday  in  January. 

(c)  The  third  Thursday  in  May. 

2.  Pupils    are    expected    to    show    County    Superintendents    that 
they  have  completed  the  subject  in  which  they  take  the  examination. 
For   this   and   other   purposes    County   Superintendents    will    require 
from  the  teachers  of  the  county  a  statement  of  the  pupils'  work  in  all 
subjects    covered   by   the    eighth    grade   examinations.      Superintend- 
ents may  require,  in  addition  to  this  statement  from  teachers,  such 
other  information  or  recommendations  as  they  desire  in   regard  to 
the  pupils. 

3.  Pupils  will  be  permited  to  retain  all  grades  of  80  per  cent, 
or  above  that  they  make  at  three  consecutive  examinations;   but  no 
pupil  shall  be  recommended  by   the  County  Superintendent  for  the 
eighth  grade  diploma  who  does  not  show  to  the  examining  board  that 
the  work  in  all  subjects  has   been  regularly  and  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted in  the  grades. 

4.  (a)    The  pupil  must   show  conclusively  that  at  least   one  of 
the  pupils'  reading  circle  books  has  been  read. 

(In  addition  to  the  written  review  required  by  the  questions,  Su- 
perintendents may  make  such  local  rules  as  they  desire  to  insure  that 
the  provisions  of  this  rule  are  met.) 


134  TEACHERS'  MANUAL. 

(b)  For   August   examination   the   reading   of   one   of   the  books 
adopted  for  the  preceding  year,  will  be  sufficient.     For  the  January 
and  May  examinations,  selections  must  be  from  the  list  adopted  for 
that  school  year. 

(c)  For  the  school  year  1905-1906  the  following  list  was  adopted 
in  June,  1905,  by  the  State  Board  of  Education: 

David  Copperfield    (any  edition). 

"The  Western   United   States"    (Fairbanks),   D.   C.   Heath  &   Co. 

"Story  of  Japan"    (Van  Bergen),  American  Book  Co. 

"Agriculture  for  Beginners"    (re-adopted),   Ginn   &   Co. 

5.  All  examinations  will  be  for  a  period  of  two  days  (Thursday 
and  Friday).  County  Superintendents  should  make  programme  con- 
form as  nearly  as  possible  to  that  for  teachers'  examinations. 
Places  and  conductors  will  be  definitely  arranged  for,  and  conductors 
should  not  be  teachers  of  the  eighth  grade  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

[NOTE. — It  is  believed  by  this  office  that  if  the  above  rules  are 
enforced  by  the  County  Superintendents,  practically  all  the  well- 
founded  objections  to  past  regulations  will  have  been  met.  It  is  not 
intended  to  make  the  examinations  easier,  but  it  is  intended  to  make 
them  more  fair.  Under  the  above  rules  subjects  completed  in  the 
seventh  grade  may  be  taken  at  the  following  August  examination. 
Rules  2  and  3,  if  carried  into  intelligent  effect,  should  result  in  giv- 
ing the  actual  school  work  and  recommendation  of  teachers  their 
proper  place  in  the  system.  It  is  confidently  expected  that  if  the 
above  provisions  are  faithfully  followed,  with  proper  grading  by  ex- 
amining boards,  the  results  will  be  much  stronger  grammar  school 
work,  and  consequently  a  greater  educational  value  for  the  eighth 
grade  diploma.] 

The  law  provides  that  the  County  Superintendent  of  Schools,  or 
assistants  duly  appointed  by  him,  shall  conduct  the  examinations; 
that  the  manuscripts  shall  be  graded  by  a  county  board  of  examin- 
ers, consisting  of  four  persons  holding  valid  certificates;  that  the 
names  of  successful  applicants  and  their  grades  shall  be  reported 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  within  ten  days  after 
any  meeting  of  the  board  of  examiners. 

No  argument  is  needed  to  convince  teachers  and  school  authorities 
that  the  system  of  grammar  school  examinations  and  graduation  is 
of  direct  benefit  to  the  individual  pupil,  as  it  is  also  to  the  school  and 
the  state  system.  It  therefore  should  be  unnecessary  to  urge  upon 
teachers  the  importance  of  encouraging  pupils  to  complete  the  grades 
and  take  the  eighth  grade  diploma.  The  fact  that  this  diploma  in- 
sures entrance  to  any  High  School  of  the  State  is  an  inducement  to 
be  mentioned;  but  the  greater  good  to  the  pupil  of  having  completed 
a  definite  work  and  the  consequent  influence  upon  his  character  should 
be  emphasized.  The  department  of  Public  Instruction  expects  the 
co-operation  of  all  County  Superintendents,  of  all  graded  school  prin- 
cipals, and  of  all  teachers,  to  the  end  that  the  system  of  grammar 
school  examinations  may  be  made  thoroughly  satisfactory  and  ef- 
fective. 


OUTLINE   COURSE   OP  STUDY.  135 


COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


Extracts  from  the  Code  of  Public  Instruction: 

"SEC.  27.  The  State  Board  of  Education  shall  have  power,  and 
it  shall  be  its  duty: 

"First.  To  prepare  and  outline  course  or  courses  of  study  for 
the  primary,  grammar  and  high  school  departments  of  the  common 
schools. 

"SEC.  309.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  principal  of  each  school  in 
all  districts  of  the  first  class  to  prepare  and  issue,  under  the  direction 
of  the  city  board  of  education,  or  board  of  school  directiors  of  the 
district,  a  course  of  study  for  his  schools,  which  course  of  study 
must,  before  going  into  effect,  be  approved  by  the  State  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction.  Such  course  of  study  shall  conform  to  the 
manual,  or  general  outline,  prescribed  by  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,and  all  examinations  and  promotions  under  the 
same  shall  be  based  upon  the  minimum  credits  in  each  study,  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  in  his  gen- 
eral manual  or  outline  course  of  study." 

In  accordance  with  the  above  provisions  of  the  Code,  Courses  of 
Study  for  the  common  schools  and  high  schools  of  the  State  were 
adopted  on  April  13,  1905.  See  following  pages. 


136 


TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


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OUTLINE   COURSE   OF  STUDY. 


137 


OUTLINE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

Prepared  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  Approved  by  the  State  Board 
of  Education  April  13,  1905. 


y. 
< 

1 

E 

REQUIRED    IN 
ALL    COURSES 

SCIENTIFIC 
COURSE 

CLASSICAL 
COURSE 

COMMERCIAL 
COURSE 

BOTH  SEMESTERS 

|j 

Physical  Geogra- 
phy 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Commercial  Arith- 
metic or  Bookkeeping 
Option 

Algebra 
English 

'B  Is 
s"S 

Physical  Geogra- 
phy 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Commercial  Geogra- 
phy or  Bookkeeping 
Option 

SECOND  YEAR 

Plane  Geometry 

Rhetoric  and 
English  Classics 

First 
Semester 

Botany  or  Physi- 
ology 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Bookkeeping  or  Com- 
mercial Arithmetic 
Option 

11 

Botany  or  Zoology 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Bookkeeping  or  Com- 
mercial Geography 
Option 

^* 

g 
P 

English 
Physics 

First 
Semester 

Modern  Language 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Stenography  and 
Typewriting 
Option 

I 

Modern  Language 
Option 

Latin 
Option 

Stenography  and 
Typewriting 
Option 

1  FOURTH  YEAR 

U.  S.  History 
and  Civics 

ll 

Modern  Language 
Chemistry 
Option 

Latin 
English 
Option 

Commercial  Law 
English 
Option 

Second 
Semester 

Modern  Language 
Chemistry 
Option 

Latin 
English 
Option 

Economics 
Advanced  Stenogra- 
phy and  Typewriting 
Option 

NOTE.— Options  for  any  year  may  be  filled  by  selection  of  any  subjects  prescribed  in 
any  course  provided  for  that  year,  or  from  the  following  subjects  for  the  year  designated. 

FIRST  YEAR:  Ancient  History,  or  European  History.  Drawing.  Modern  Lan- 
guage. Manual  Training,  or  Household  Arts. 

SECOND  YEAR:  European  History,  or  Ancient  History.  Drawing.  Modern  Lan- 
guage. Manual  Training,  or  Household  Arts. 

THIRD  YEAR:  English  History.  Drawing.  Higher  Algebra.  Solid  Geometry. 
Manual  Training,  or  Household  Arts.  Geology.  High  School  Arithmetic.  U.  S. 
History  and  Civics  (only  for  districts  maintaining  a  three-year  High  School). 

FOURTH  YEAR:  Drawing.  Solid  Geometry.  Trigonometry.  Manual  Training,  or 
Household  Arts.  Geology.  Astronomy.  Psychology.  High  School  Arithmetic. 


138  TEACHERS'   MANUAL. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 


The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  wishes  to  acknowledge  the 
courtesy  of  Hon.  W.  L.  Stockwell,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
of  North  Dakota,  in  permitting  this  department  to  make  an  extensive 
extract  from  his  course  of  study. 


ILLINOIS  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


The  Illinois  Course  of  Study  is  exceedingly  valuable  and  should  be 
in  constant  use  by  the  teachers  of  Washington.  It  is  filled  with  sugges- 
tions that  will  help  any  teacher.  Published  by  C.  M.  Parker,  Taylor- 
ville.  Price,  25  cents. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction .- 3 

Reading 5 

Writing 21 

Spelling -. 23 

Language   —  •  29 

Grammar 45 

Geography 48 

History 56 

Civics , 63 

Number  and  Arithmetic 65 

Physiology  77 

Nature  Study 89 

Agriculture 98 

Drawing 100 

Music ; 104 

Manual  Training* 108 

Morals  and  Manners 123 

Extracts  from  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen 132 

Grammar  School  Examinations 133 

Outline  Courses  of  Study 135 


}.'>:  :-.}.'•:  -  J- -A-j  r:  -  .A- 


MEM  OR  A^ISTD^L. 


MEMORANDA. 


MEMORANDA. 


MEMORANDA. 


This  Manual  is  the  property  of 

School  District  No , 

County. 


GIFT 

TEACHERS'  MANUAL 


FOR  THE 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  OF 
WASHINGTON 


Supplement  No.  2 
Manual  and  Household  Arts 


By  B.  W.  JOHNSON,  Director  of  Manual  Training 

and  MRS.  ELLEN  P.  DABNEY,  Supervisor 

of  Sewing  and  Cookery,  Seattle 

Public  Schools 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE 

OK  BDLJCAXION 

HENRY   B.   DEWEY, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 


OL.YMPIA,  WASH,: 

E.  L.  BOABDMAN,  PUBLIC  PRINTBB 

1911 


MANUAL  ARTS. 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 

(Suggested  Course  for  Boys  and  Girls.) 

"Education  is  the  conscious  effort  on  the  part  of  society  to  organize 
its  life,  to  the  end  that  the  pepole  may  be  one  body,  wherein  each  may 
perform  his  separate  office,  at  once,  for  his  own  good  and  for  the  good 
of  all." — Quotation. 

"Education  comes  through  what  the  child  does,  and  says,  and 
thinks,  and  feels  in  the  presence  of  the  environment  which  the  teacher 
supplies.  The  teacher  teaches  the  child;  the  child  educates  himself. 
In  being  taught,  the  child  is  passive;  in  being  educated,  he  is  active. 
The  thing  to  be  stressed  is  that  teachers  educate  more,  even  if  to  gain 
the  time  necessary  for  it  they  have  to  teach  less.  Education  is  self- 
expression,  not  impression  alone.  Every  impression  made  by  teachers 
upon  pupils  should  be  followed  by  expression  in  some  fashion  from  the 
pupils." — "Philosophy  of  Education,1'  Herman  H.  Home. 

AIM  OP  THE  MANUAL  ARTS. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  give  educational  direction  to  the 
child's  natural  constructive  tendencies  by  using  forms  that  are  of 
interest  to  the  pupil.  These  "forms"  should  be  based  upon  interests 
arising  from  life  in  home  and  school,  in  industry  and  in  his  play.  The 
forms  chosen  should  come  to  the  pupil  as  problems  in  construction  to 
be  solved  by  him,  and  in  the  solution  of  which  he  will  acquire  skill, 
the  power  to  create,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  constructive  work  in 
the  world  about  him. 

This  diagram  form  of  the  schedule  (aee  pages  6,  7  and  8)  is  intended 
to  more  closely  direct  the  teacher  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  aim. 

In  the  column  "To  Teach"  are  grouped  in  constructive  sequence 
the  principles  and  related  processes  that  must  be  learned  in  order  that 
the  child  might  have  proper  means  for  putting  into  construction  form 
his  awaking  ideas. 

Under  the  next  heading,  "Means,"  the  teacher  should  select  a 
"suitable  form"  in  which  is  involved  the  processes  or  principles  to  be 
taught  and  by  means  of  which  the  teacher  can  illustrate  these  pro- 
cesses to  the  class,  and  the  class  in  following  out  this  instruction 
make  the  "form,"  and  then  by  this  experience  better  understand,  the 
way  it  is  done,  why  it  is  so  constructed,  the  skill  and  workmanship 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


necessary  to  do  the  work  well  and  also  the  value  of  time  and  the  worth 
of  material.  All  these  elements  are  fundamental  to  an  appreciation  of 
similar  constructive  efforts  in  life  about  him. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  make  it  clear  to  the  pupil  that  the 
purpose  of  the  process  is  to  accomplish  some  definite  end,  and  to 
lead  the  pupil  to  reason  out  the  further  application  of  this  knowledge. 
Knowledge  is  for  use.  Additional  power  is  sought,  as  well  as  accurate 
results. 

Now,  class  work  should  develop  in  the  pupil  power  to  do  individual 
work.  This  he  is  now  ready  to  do,  for  in  the  class  he  has  learned 
how  to  use  the  tools  and  materials  and  to  see  the  completed  whole 
from  a  drawing  in  the  flat.  The  next  step  then,  indicated  by  the 
numbers  1,  2,  etc.,  is  to  offer  for  the  individual  to  choose  from  a 
number  of  projects  or  problems  similar  in  constructive  principles  to 
the  "class"  or  practice  form  used  to  teach  all  the  children  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  tools  and  processes.  These  projects  are  indicated  under 
the  heading  "Application  in  Constructive  Problems."  Here,  as  each 
child  completes  his  class  piece,  he  at  once  selects  a  new  problem,  to 
apply  what  he  has  learned  in  solving  his  own  particular  problem. 

These  numbers  indicated  the  direction  of  the  pupil's  progress  and  not 
the  series  of  lessons.  A  number  of  lessons  will  often  be  required  in 
the  working  out  of  these  problems. 

This  step  in  the  pupil's  progress  is  the  most  important  one.  Out 
of  this  should  come  the  habit  of  successfully  meeting  new  problems, 
new  situations,  a  power  to  determine  what  to  do  and  then  do  it — 
"initiative." 

As  a  further  guide  in  determining  what  problem  to  offer  him  for 
individual  selection,  the  three  basic  motives  or  interests  that  de- 
termine our  selection  of  life's  needs, — Home  and  School;  Industrial,  Me- 
chanical; and  Play, — are  indicated  in  columns,  and  under  each  is  placed 
the  constructive  problem  that  more  nearly  supplies  that  need.  The 
child's  interests  indicate  the  line  of  greatest  effort.  This  division  will 
further  help  in  keeping  our  course  from  becoming  onesided  or  narrow, 
by  reason  of  the  interests  stimulated  or  awakened. 

The  column  "Materials"  indicates  what  materials  are  required  for 
the  various  exercises.  The  teacher  should  discuss  with  the  class  the 
fitness  of  the  material  for  the  purpose  intended;  how  to  care  for  it; 
what  it  costs;  how  produced.  Ideas  of  economy  are  thereby  engendered; 
some  knowledge  given  of  the  great  industries  that  maintain  thousands 
of  people. 

The  column  "Drawing  Required"  is  to  indicate  the  method  of 
presentation  to  the  class  and  the  drawing  required  of  the  pupil.  It  is 
very  necessary  that  the  pupil  continually  see  constructive  form  rep- 
resented in  the  flat,  and  thus  become  familiar  with  how  to  express 
himself  in  constructive  drawing. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


If  understood,  this  method  gives  greater  freedom  to  both  teacher  and 
pupil:  To  the  teacher,  in  that  the  field  is  not  restricted  and  the 
shaping  of  the  course  may  be  adapted  to  individual  and  local  needs; 
to  the  pupil,  in  that  he  may  work  as  rapidly  as  his  skill  and  interest 
dictates  and  his  own  ingenuity  devises.  Thus  the  slow  pupil  will  not 
lose  any  of  the  instruction  by  making  only  the  simplest  forms. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupil  does  not  drop  back  in  his 
choosing,  but  selects  a  form  or  model  (his  own  or  the  one  suggested) 
of  the  same  general  type  as  the  "Practice  Piece"  given  to  instruct  the 
whole  class. 

Finally,  this  course  presupposes  a  trained  teacher  who  will  take  up 
the  work  in  the  order  given,  but  will  select  from  this  course  according 
to  local  need  and  conditions  the  best  means  for  teaching  the  principles 
here  involved. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


CONSTRUCTION 


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Manual  and  Household  Arts 


COOKERY  SCHEDULE.— EIGHTH  GRADE. 

AIM:     To  Teach  Simple  Elements  of  Food  Values  and  Some  Simple 
Fundamentals  of  Cookery. 


TO  TEACH. 


CLASS    WORK. 


Recitation. 


MATERIALS. 


man  body. 
Classes  of  foods  and  their 
uses  in  the  body. 


*°   ""I  G^uKoffooasbycom.:  Peabody's  or  other  physio- 


position  as  determined 
from  government  bulle- 
tins. 


logy  dealti 
Government 


_  with  foods, 
bulletin  142. 


Dexterity. 

Accurate  measurements. 
Control  of  heat. 


Source  and  nutritive  val- 
ue of  starch  and  sugar. 
Time  and  temperature  re- 


Measuring  liquids  and  dry 
material  to  verify  table 
of  measurements. 

Management  of  stove,  de- 
termining amount  of 
fuel. 


Table  of  measurements. 
Meal,  flour,  sugar,  water, 
Heating  stove  with  flat  top 
or  small  cook  stove. 


Cooking  of  cereals. 


quired  to  cook  starchy    Cooking  of  dishes  thicken- 


material. 
Use  of  sugar. 


Methods  and  temperature 
of  cooking  vegetables. 


Low  temperatures  for 

proteids. 
Slow,     long     cooking 

tough  cuts  of  meat. 


of 


Care  of  food  material. 


Doughs   and  batters. 
Leavening  by  air,   baking 
powder,  soda  and  acid. 


Leavening  by  yea'st. 


ed  with  flour  or  starch. 
Stewed   fruits. 


Double  boiler. 
Sauce  pan. 
Breakfast    cereals. 
Milk,    starch   or  flour. 
Rice,    hominy,    vegetables, 

etc. 
Sugar,     fresh     and     dried 

fruits. 


Boiling,  simmering,  bak-  j  Berlin  kettle,  or  sauce  pan. 
ing  of  such  vegetables  i  Potatoes,  dried  beans,  peas, 
as  may  be  convenient.  ,  squash,  pumpkin,  etc. 

Making  of  cream  soups,  t  Government  Bulletins  256, 
121  and  295. 


Cooking  of  eggs  and  egg 

combinations. 
Soup  meats. 
Stews  and  cheap  cuts. 


Government    Bulletins    128 

and  293. 
Double    boiler,    sauce    pan, 

frying  pan,  Berlin  kettle. 
Meat. 


Class  recitation. 
Study  of  government  bul-    Government    Bulletin. 
Care     of     materials     and    Farmers'  Bulletin  375. 
lunch  baskets  at  school. 


Separating     gluten     from 

flour. 
Making  popovers,  muffins, 

biscuits. 


Study  of  yeast. 
Making  light  bread. 


Government  Bulletin  389. 
Oven. 

Flour,  soda,  baking  powder, 
milk. 


Yeast  flour,  milk  or  water. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


References : 

Farmers  Bulletins. 

No.  142 — Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

No.  375 — Care  of  Food  in  the  Home. 

No.  391 — Economical  Use  of  Meats. 

No.  256 — Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  Table. 

No.  34 — Meats,  Composition  and  Cooking. 

No.  128 — Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food. 

No.  363— Uses  of  Milk  as  Food. 

No.  63 — Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm. 

No.  121 — Beans,  Peas  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food. 

No.  295 — Potatoes  and  Other  Root  Crops  as  Food. 

No.  2-3 — Canned  Fruit,  Preserves  and  Jellies. 

No.    389 — Bread    and    Bread-Making. 

Elements    of    the    Theory    and    Practice    of    Cookery — Fisher    and 
Williams. 

Chamberlain's  How  We  Are  Fed. 

Home  Science  Cook  Book — Lincoln  &  Barross. 

SEWING   SCHEDULE.— EIGHTH   GRADE. 
AIM:     To  Teach  Elements  of  Plain  Sewing. 


TO  TEACH. 


Control  of  material. 

Making  of  the  different 
stitches ;  basting,  run- 
ning, hemming,  back- 
stitching,  over-casting. 


Application  of  stitches. 
Meaning    of    term    warp, 
woof,  selvage,  bias. 


Felling  and  French  seam- 
ing. 


CLASS    WORK. 


Practice  each  kind  of 
stitch  on  piece  of  mus- 
lin. 


Making  of  school  bag  or 

button  bag. 
Hemming  towel. 


Laundry  bag  or  pillow 
case,  simple  garment  of 
underwear. 


MATERIAL. 


Unbleached  muslin,  needle^ 
thread,  thimble. 


Crash  or  other  material. 


Muslin,  long  cloth,  print. 


Blanket  stitch. 
Buttonhole   stitch. 
Sewing  on  of  buttons. 


Practice  piece. 
Scallop  doily  or  towel. 
I  Buttonhole  in  some  gar-    !  White  muslin. 

ment.  j  Toweling  or   crash. 

Sow  on  buttons.  j  Waisting. 

Making  a  shirtwaist. 


Repairing. 
Darning. 


Practice   on   piece   of   old 

stocking  leg. 
Darning  stocking  or  sock. 


Patching — hemmed,    over-  Practice  on  pieces  of 


hand,  stitched. 


gingham. 
Patching  child's  own 
clothes. 


Worn  stockings. 
Gingham. 
Any  worn  or  torn 
garment. 


Reference:  A  Sewing  Course,  Woolman;  Government  Bulletins  on 
Flax,  Cotton,  Wool;  Chamberlain's  How  We  Are 
Clothed. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts  9 


MEANS 

The  Teacher:  The  best  results  are  only  obtainable  in  this  grade 
with  a  separate  room  or  rooms,  specially  equipped,  and  a  well-edu- 
cated and  well-trained  teacher.  The  age  of  the  pupil  gives  him  a 
capacity  for  a  rather  high  grade  of  performance.  The  processes  and 
the  problems  must  be  worthy  of  and  command  his  highest  efforts.  The 
teacher  is  the  all-important  requirement.  The  amount  and  variety  of 
the  equipment,  the  character  of  the  work  planned  and  carried  out, 
its  relations  to  the  other  school  work  and  its  vitality  for  the  pupils 
and  the  communities'  needs  are  all  dependent  upon  the  teacher. 
Such  a  teacher  plans  the  course  to  meet  the  educational,  financial 
and  social  conditions  of  the  community  in  which  he  or  she  works.  A 
good  salary  is  necessary.  If  the  number  of  pupils  to  receive  instruc- 
tion is  not  sufficient  to  occupy  the  full  time  of  such  a  teacher,  he  or 
she  may  teach  part  time  in  the  regular  school  work,  or  two  or  more 
adjacent  districts  may  employ  the  same  special  teacher  for  part  time  in 
each  school. 

THE   EQUIPMENT 

References:  Economics  of  Manual  Training,  by  Louis  Rouillion, 
Manual  Arts  Press,  Peoria,  111.,  $1.50;  Teachers'  College  Record,  May, 
1909,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  30  cents. 

Sewing:  The  sewing  course  does  not  require  a  special  teacher,  nor 
a  special  equipment  or  room.  It  is  usually  taught  in  the  regular  class- 
room by  the  class  teacher  to  the  girls  when  the  boys  are  away  at  bench 
work. 

In  many  of  the  larger  towns  of  the  country  the  sewing  is  taught  by 
the  cooking  or  a  special  teacher.  This  is  desirable,  resulting  in  more 
and  much  better  work  being  done.  It  is,  of  course,  correspondingly 
more  expensive. 

Cookery  and  Bench  Work:  The  cookery  and  bench  work  courses 
require  special  equipments  and  should  be  used  in  specially  fitted  rooms. 
Where  the  school  is  small  and  another  room  cannot  be  had,  an  equip- 
ment to  be  used  in  the  classroom  is  given  for  a  course  in  cookery. 
(See  Appendix  and  figures  Nos.  1,  2,  3  and  4).  Such  an  arrange- 
ment for  bench  work  is  not  feasible,  as  the  school  desk  is  too  low  for 
the  use  of  carpenter's  tools.  It  is  possible  in  such  an  emergency  to  have 
a  few  benches  in  one  side  of  the  room.  The  equipment  lists  that  follow 
are  arranged  for  units  of  6;  a  class  usually  numbers  about  24. 

Combination  Centers:  Another  arrangement  economical  of  the 
pupil's  time  and  of  room  space,  and  also  in  first  cost,  where  the  classes 
are  the  usual  size,  is  a  combination  center.  The  equipment  in  this 
arrangement  is  so  arranged  that  the  same  room  and  the  benches  are 
used  by  the  boys  and  girls  at  different  times.  (See  Figures  Nos.  5, 
6,  7  and  8). 

The  floor  plan  given  (Figure  No.  8)  shows  the  arrangement  of  such 
a  room.  Gas  or  oil  stoves  may  be  used  between  the  benches.  When  the 
lessons  in  serving  are  given  the  .dining  table  is  set  in  the  open  space 


FIG.     1.    Macdonald  Institute,  Rural  School  Equipment. 


FIG.  2.     Macdonald  Institute,  Rural  School  Equipment. 


PIG.  3.    Packing-Box  Equipment  for  Cookery,  Teacher's  College,  Columbia 

University. 


PIG.  4.     Macdonald  Institute,  Rural  School  Equipment. 


PIG.   5.     Combination  Center.     Benchwork  Class. 


Fig.  6.     Combination  Center.     Cookery  Detail. 


Fig.  7.     A  Combination  Center.     A  Class  in  Cookery  in  a  Portable,  Using 

Oil    Stoves. 


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Manual  and  Household  Arts 


in  the  front  of  the  room  and  is  screened  off  from  the  rest  of  the  room 
by  suitable  folding  or  hanging  screens.  See  (Fig.  13). 

Bench  Work  Center:  This  floor  plan  would  be  the  same  for  use  as 
a  bench  work  center  separate  from  cookery.  The  bench  is  the  same, 
except  the  drawer  and  lower  compartment  may  be  omitted  if  the  bench 
is  used  for  woodwork  only  (See  Fig.  14).  This  bench  is  of  fir  throughout 
and  can  be  made  by  a  local  carpenter  or  the  boys  themselves.  The  lead- 
ing school  supply  houses  furnish  excellent  benches  of  hardwood,  but 
more  expensive.  A  satisfactory  bench  much  cheaper  than  the  above 
could  be  built  continuous  in  a  rough  manner  similar  to  the  ordinary 
carpenter's  bench.  A  well-made  bench  with  a  good  vise  is  self-evident 
economy,  and  built  singly  is  an  economy  of  floor  space  for  the  greater 
freedom  and  controlof  the  class. 

The  other  furniture  given  in  the  accompanying  drawings  may  be 
modified  to  meet  varying  conditions. 

Cookery  Center:  When  a  separate  room,  the  cooking  tables  are  pre- 
ferably built  for  that  purpose  and  arranged  to  *form  three  sides  of  a 
square,  with  gas  or  oil  stoves  on  the  inside  edge  of  the  table.  (See  Figs. 
11  and  12).  The  photographs  show  a  number  of  arrangements  accord- 
ing to  conditions  to  be  met  with.  Cooking  tables  are  now  listed  in  the 
catalogues  of  school  supply  houses.  The  drawing  given  (Figure  No.  9) 
gives  the  details  of  a  table  built  for  four  pupils.  The  bar  gridirons 
may  be  replaced  with  a  gas  hot  plate  and  wooden  legs  on  the  tables 
replace  the  iron  pipe  legs  shown. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOB   A    MANUAL    TRAINING    OR    COOKING    ROOM. 

Size:  The  area  should  be  from  900  to  1,000  square  feet  for  a  class 
of  twenty-four  pupils,  the  accepted  number  for  one  class.  (See  ac- 
companying drawing  for  details  and  arrangement). 

Light:  The  windows  should  be  numerous  and  of  full  length,  if  possi- 
ble, placed  in  two  adjacent  sides  or  opposite  sides  of  the  room.  The 
light  should  shine  on  the  front  and  left-hand  end  of  the  bench  or  on 
both  ends.  Artificial  light  should  be  provided,  preferably  electric,  in 
six  groups  or  clusters  near  the  ceiling,  or  one  lamp  properly  guarded 
may  be  suspended  over  each  bench. 

Heat  and,  Ventilation:  These  should  receive  the  same  care  and 
consideration  as  in  any  other  schoolroom.  The  temperature  of  a  work- 
room may  be  several  degrees  cooler  than  the  classroom,  and  should 
be  abundantly  supplied  with  pure,  fresh  air. 

Supply  Room:  This  room  may  not  be  adjacent  to  the  shop-room, 
but  is  preferably  so;  as  indicated,  100  square  feet  is  sufficient.  It  may 
be  long  and  narrow,  as  it  is  wall  space  that  is  desired.  Abundant 
shelving  should  be  provided  and  lumber  racks  as  indicated  for  stand- 
ing the  stock  on  end  on  the  floor  and  between  the  pegs  placed  vertically 
to  the  wall. 

The  teacher's  closet  is  for  private  use  and  for  the  storage  of  any 
finished  work  desirable  to  keep.  It  should  be  provided  with  hooks  and 
shelves  and  doors  with  locks. 


Fig.    11.     Domestic    Science,    Olympia    High    School. 
(Equipment  made  by  the  boys  in  the  manual  training  classes.) 


Fig.    12.     A   Class-Room   Used  as   a   Cookery   Center. 
(Speyer  School,   Columbia  University.) 


16 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


Water:  A  sink  or  washbowl  with  running  water  is  very  necessary. 
Hot  water  is  then  possible  with  a  range  with  water  back,  or  a  separate 
hot  water  heater  may  be  used. 

Blackboard:  A  blackboard  may  be  fastened  to  the  wall  where  it 
may  be  easily  seen  by  the  pupils;  or  a  movable  board  may  be  used  as 
shown,  combining  a  screen  and  blackboard  in  one.  (See  Fig.  10). 

Exhibit  Board:  The  screen  side  may  be  used  also  for  a  display  board 
of  finished  work,  though  it  is  better  to  have  a  separate  exhibit  board 
fastened  to  the  wall  and  covered  with  a  natural  or  dark  brown  colored 
burlap.  This  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  a  manual  training  room,  if  well 
taken  care  of  and  the  best  work  placed  upon  it,  as  a  source  of  sugges- 
tion and  inspiration  to  the  pupils. 

The  Furniture  of  the  Room:  Is  indicated  on  the  floor  plan  (Figure 
No.  8)  and  in  the  accompanying  drawings. 

In  addition  to  this,  a  dining  table  large  enough  to  seat  six,  with  six 
plain  dining  chairs  (See  Fig.  14) ;  24  stools  24  inches  high  are  required 
for  the  use  of  the  girls.  They  are  not  needed  in  a  bench  work  center 
if  provision  is  made  for  the  boy  to  stand  up  while  drawing. 

Finish  of  Room:  It  should  be  finished  as  any  other  desirable  class- 
room. If  a  basement  room  is  used,  select  one  having  the  largest  win- 
dows, with  the  best  arrangement.  A  wooden  floor  is  much  the  prefer- 
able for  pupils  and  teacher  and  admits  of  easily  fastening  the  benches 
to  the  floor.  The  passage  to  the  room  should  be  carefully  screened 
from  the  sanitaries. 

Estimated  Cost  for  a  Special  Room  for  Manual  Training  and  Cookery: 


Work  bench,  from  $6.00  to  $10.00 

Lockers  (each)  7.00 

Tool  closet 12.00 

China  closet 25.00 

Pot  closets  (each) 10.00 

Blackboard  screen  .  6.00 


Dining  table  and  six  chairs.  $12.00 

Stools  (each)    76 

Paint  and  oil  closet 3.50 

Store  room  (shelving,  etc.)    15.00 
Plumbing,   from    $50.00   to  100.00 
(Including  sink  and  piping, 
boiler,  etc). 


TOOLS  AND  UTENSILS. 

BENCH    WORK    TOOLS. 

Set  for  Each  Bench:    (Cost,  about  $5.00). 

1  14-inch  iron  jack  plant,  No.  5. 

1  10-inch  Bishop's  handy  saw. 

1  6-inch  Stanley  graduated  all-iron  try  square. 

1  Stanley  patent  adjustable  point  marking  gauge. 

1  Stanley  No.  18,  2-foot,  2-fold  boxwood  rule. 

1  each  %-inch  and  %-inch  firmer  short  socket  chisels,  handled  and 
sharpened. 

1  Swedish  Sloyd  knife. 

1  9-oimce  all-bristle  bench  brush. 

1  Springfield  drawing  kit,  No.  2   (cost,  about  $5.00). 

Set  of  general  tools  sufficient  for  six  pupils  and  should  be  duplicated 
for  each  additional  six  in  a  class,  except  in  bit  sets,  which  should  be 
added  to  in  assorted  sizes  as  required.  (Cost,  about  $20.00). 

1  set  13  auger  bits,  %-  to  1-inch,  inclusive. 


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Fig.   10. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts  19 


1  8-inch  Atkins'  ratchet  brace  (alligator  steel  jaws,  plated  heads). 

1  rosehead  countersink. 

1  forged  steel  screwdriver  bit. 

1  razor-blade  8-inch  draw  knife. 

1  No.  52  iron  spoke  shave. 

1  26-inch  rip  saw,  Atkins  No.  53,  or  equal. 

1  22-inch  cross-cut,  Atkins  No.  53,  or  equal. 

1  6-inch  coping  saw  with  one  dozen  extra  blades. 

3  Atkins  silver  steel  cabinet  scrapers. 

3  10-inch  %-round  cabinet  files. 

1  steel,  24-inch  by  16-inch,  framing  square. 

6  6-inch  malleable  iron  clamps. 

6  36-inch  Sheldon  spring  steel  bar  clamps. 

1  2-inch  by  6-inch  combination  India  oil  stone. 

1  3-inch  bronzed  oil  can. 

1  each  gimlet  bits  1-8,  5-32,  3-16. 

1  drill  bit,  3-16. 

1  2%-inch  by  6-inch  mallet. 

2  4-inch  champion  screwdrivers. 

3  No.  13  Maydole  hammers. 

Set  of  general  tools  required  for  each  class  of  24  or  less  pupils. 

1  saw  vise. 

1  No.  95  Morrell  saw  set. 

1  grindstone  or  emery  grinder. 

1  pair  cutting  pliers,  6-inch. 

1  pair  turners  snips,  10-inch. 

Hardware : 

The  amounts  are  determined  by  the  number  of  pupils  and  the  amount 
of  time  they  spend  in  this  work. 

Sand  paper   (quires),  Nos.  0-1  and  1%. 

Cotton  waste  (Ibs.). 

Wire  brads,  i/2-in.  No.  20,  %-in.  No.  20,  1-in.  No.  18,  1^4-in.  No.  18. 

Glue,  shell  or  liquid. 

Nails,  common  and  finish,  from  2d  to  lOd. 

Screws,  flat-head  and  round-head,  from  %-in.  No.  7  to  2-in.  No.  12. 

Screw,  eyes  and  hooks. 

Tacks,  common  and  thumb. 

Wire,  soft  iron. 

Paints  and  Oils: 

Coal  oil,  linseed  oil  (boiled),  turpentine. 

Denatured  alcohol  (for  shellac). 

Shellac,  orange  (in  shell). 

Floor  wax. 

Putty. 

White  lead,  and  a  few  simple  colors  in  1-lb.  cans  (ground  in  oil). 

Wood  stains. 

"Three  in  One"  oil  in  bottles. 

Brushes,  1%-in.  or  2-in.  for  paint  and  shellac. 

Lumber: 

The  sizes  and  amounts  are  dependent  upon  local  conditions.  It 
should  be  good,  clear,  soft  and  dry  material,  surfaced  four  sides  for 
the  most  part.  It  should  be  native  material,  when  possible;  in  thick- 
ness from  %-inch  to  1%-inch,  in  varying  widths  and  suitable  lengths 
for  convenient  handling  and  storing.  Hardwoods,  the  most  commonly 
found  in  furniture  and  cabinet  work,  should  be  used  to  acquaint  the 
boy  with  the  difference  in  use,  treatment,  and  cost  of  such  materials, 
and  their  habitat. 


20  Manual  and  Household  Arts 


COOKERY   UTENSILS. 

(One  utensil  for  each  pupil): 

Plate,  white  enamel,  8%-inch.  Fork,  steel. 

Bowl,  yellow  earthen,  1%-pint.  Knife,  steel. 

Bowl,  white  enamel,  1-pint.  Knife,  paring. 

Cup,  measuring  tin,  ^-pint.  Spoon,  table. 

Cup,  measuring  glass,  %-pint.  Spoon,  teaspoon. 

Cup,  custard,  earthen.  Spoon,  wooden,  small. 

Pan,  sauce,  hdl.,  1%-pint.  Cover,  tin  for  sauce  pan. 

Pan,  frying,  6-inch   (00  Acme  steel).  Pie  tin,  5-inch  shallow. 

Pan,  dish,  8-quart.  Strainer,  4-inch. 
(Cost  for  one  pupil  about  $2.50). 

(One  utensil  for  two  pupils): 

Pans,  bread,  3-inch  by  4-inch  by  2-inch. 
Pans,  milk,  enamel,  5-inch. 
Pans,  square  shallow,  6-inch  by  6-inch. 
Pans,  muffin,  6-hole. 
Rolling  pins,  12-inch. 
Spatula,  5-inch. 
Biscuit  cutter  (small). 
Scrub  brush. 
Egg  whip-wire. 
Dover  beater. 

Soaper,  white  enamel,  without  back. 
Oven,  No.  0,  9-inch  by  9-inch  by  12-inch. 

Two-burner  gas  plate  or  oil  stove  (blue  flame.    Cost,  about  $2.00  to 
$8.00). 
(Cost  for  two  pupils,  about  $2.00,  not  counting  stove). 

Utensils  for  General  Use: 

1  food  chopper,  Universal  No.  1.  1  sifter,  flour,  cycle. 

1  clothes  drier,  Eureka.  2  trays,  15-inch. 

1  coffee  pot.  4  bowls,  yellow,  3-quart. 

3  jars,  stone,  1-gallon,  covered.  1  can  opener. 

24  jars,  Mason,  1-pint.  1  cork  screw. 

12  jelly  glasses.  1  knife,  bread. 

1  kettle,  Berlin,  8-quart.  1  knife,  butcher. 

1  tea  kettle,  6-quart.  1  knife,  cake. 

1  mop  with  pail,  Erie  self-wringing.    1  knife,  French. 

1  dust  pan.  1  steel  knife  sharpener. 

1  dripping  pan.  1  spoon,  large  wooden. 

1  garbage  pail.  2  spoons,  large  enamel. 

2  pitchers,  white  enamel.  1  salt  box. 

2  plates,  8-inch,  white  enamel.  1  skillet,  14-inch. 

2  potato  mashers.  1  double  boiler,  4-quart. 

1  scale,  household,  spring  dial,  25-lb.  1  roasting  pan. 
(Cost  about  $25.00). 

1  cook  stove  with  water  back  (if  running  water  is  available).    Cost 

from  $15.00  to  $35.00.      (The  hot  water  boiler,  30  gallons,   is 
usually  included  in  the  plumbing). 

Dining  Room  Service: 

2  table  cloths. 
24  napkins. 

6  knives,  Wm.  Rogers  or  equal. 
12  forks,  Wm.  Rogers  or  equal. 

6  dessert  spoons,  Wm.  Rogers  or  equal. 
12  teaspoons,  Wm.  Rogers  or  equal. 

1  set  semi-porcelain  dishes,  white. 
(Cost,  about  $20.00). 


Fig.   13.      A  Sewing  Lesson. 


Domestic   Arts   Exhibit. 


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A  RURAL  SCHOOL  COOKERY  COURSE  FOR  THE  RURAL  SCHOOL 
THAT  CANNOT  AFFORD  THE  REGULAR  EQUIPMENT. 


COOKING  EQUIPMENT. 
Dry  goods  box  with  curtains  and  shelves  for  utensils.     (See  Fig.  3.) 


1  Berlin  kettle. 
1  large  sauce  pan  with  cover. 
1  small  sauce  pan  with  cover. 
1  dish  pan. 

1  dripping  pan. 

2  large  enamel  bowls. 
2  small  enamel  bowls. 
1  wire  toaster. 

4  small  bread  pans. 


1  ladle  (enamel). 

1  large  spoon    (enamel). 

1  large  fork. 

1  French  or  butcher's  knife. 

1  egg  whip. 

1  double  boiler. 

1  white  enamel  pitcher. 

1  tea  kettle. 

2  sets  gem  pans. 


For  serving — Plates,  cups  and  saucers,  bowls  (white  enamel  or  semi- 
porcelain)  ;  knives  and  forks,  spoons. 

(One  teakettle,  one  Berlin  kettle,  one  saucepan,  with  spoon,  knife 
and  fork  will  answer  for  a  start  where  more  cannot  be  had). 

A  homemade  fireless  cooker. 

A  box  cupboard  for  supplies. 

In  the  hands  of  a  resourceful  teacher,  the  equipment,  meager  as  it 
is,  would  be  sufficient  to  transform  some  communities. 

If  the  school  board  would  furnish  (Figs.  Nos.  1  and  2)  a  small 
cook  stove,  sawhorses  with  smooth  board  tops  for  work  tables,  a  cup- 
board for  supplies,  a  few  more  utensils  to  work  with,  a  very  interesting 
and  profitable  course  might  be  given  and  the  entire  school  have  some- 
thing warm  and  palatable  for  lunch  each  day. 

A  few  suggestions  as  to  what  may  be  prepared  with  the  foregoing 
equipment: 

COOKERY  COURSE. 


SOUPS— 

_  Tomato,  potato,  pea,  corn. 

MEATS- 

SOUP  moat,  brown  stew,  beef  stew 
with  dumplings,   chicken  smothered, 
chicken  stewed  with  dumplings, 
chicken  fricassee. 

Potatoes,  carrots,  onions,  beans 
(dried),  peas  (dried),  pumpkins, 
squash,  etc. 

POTATOES— 

Plain  boiled,  mashed,  creamed,  scal- 
loped au  gratan,  cakes. 


SOUPS   (with  stock)— 
Broth,  vegetable,  etc. 


EGGS— 

Soft  cooked,  poached,  stuffed,  souffle, 
omelet,   cheese   souffle. 


WHITE  SAUCE— 

Toast  and  white  sauce,  macaroni. 
scalloped  and  creamed  vegetables. 

SALAD   DRESSINGS— 
—  and  sauce. 

P.UKAD  — 

Baking    powder   or    soda   and   sour    milk 

breads.  • 

Muffins  —  corn,  graham. 
Whole   wheat   flour  biscuits. 
Tea   biscuits. 


EGG  AND  MILK  COMBINATION— 
Boiled   custard,   bread  pudding,   tapi- 
oca  cream,  puddings,  Christmas  fig. 

T->  T  C"1  TO f 

Plain,  cooked  with  milk,  cooked  with 
fruit,  pudding. 


FRUITS — 

Fresh  fruits. 
Dried  fruits. 


SALADS— 

Cabbage,  potato,  beet,  apple 
and  celery. 


Yeast  bread. 

Plain  light  bread  rolls. 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


WHAT  OTHERS  HAVE  DONE. 
TEACHERS'  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY. 

PACKING  Box  EQUIPS  KM. 
(Teachers'   College   Record,   May,    1909.) 

Designed  and  used  by  students,  Department  of  Domestic  Science, 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University.  This  equipment  is  intended 
to  show  what  may  be  done  in  a  district  school  where  available  funds 
are  limited.  (Fig.  36). 

The  number  of  tables  that  could  be  used  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
space  in  the  schoolroom.  If  the  space  is  small,  even  one  table  would 
answer  the  purpose,  if  the  teacher  is  sufficiently  ingenious  to  fit  in 
the  work  of  cooking  with  her  other  subjects.  With  a  small  equipment, 
two  or  three  children  could  work  at  a  time,  say  one  or  two  days  a  week. 

Packing  boxes  can  be  obtained  in  almost  any  neighborhood,  and  the 
painting,  carpentry  work  and  sewing  done  by  the  pupils  in  the  school, 
thus  making  the  cost  very  low.  In  the  winter  the  heater  might  be 
used  for  cooking,  if  the  top  is  flat. 

UTENSILS   FOR   SIX  PUPILS 
(Prices  from  H.  C.   F.  Koch,   Now  York  City,  and  the  10-cent  store,   1907.) 

Cost 
For  one.     For  six. 


Individual. 
white    bowl, 


1    qt. 


1  measuring  cup 


granite  pan 
sauce  pan  . 
tin  pail  . . . 
steel  fork  . . 
steel  knife  . 
tablespoon 


2  teaspoons 


1  oil  stove 

1  asbestos  mat 


$0.05 

$0.30 

.05 

.30 

.10 

.60 

.05 

.30 

.10 

.60 

.05 

.30 

.05 

.30 

.02% 

.15 

.01  2-3 

.10 

$0.49  1-6 

$2.95 

.70 

4.20 

.05 

.30 

For  Class — 

3  bread  boards $0.15 

1  rolling  pin. 05 

3  baking  powder  can  tops 

(for  cookie  cutters) 

1  flour  sifter 10 

1  large  frying  pan 25 

1  double  boiler 50 

1  quart  kettle 25 


$1.24 1-6     $7.45 

tea  kettle $o.r>o 

broiler 20 

garbage  can 25 

pitchers 25 


2  apple  corers 10 

1  chopping  knife 10 

1  chopping  bowl 05 

6  muffin  tins  at  2c 12 


Manual  and  Household  Arts 


,$OJO 


2  layer  cake  tins 

3  dish  pans 45 

3  rinsing  pans 30 

1  strainer 05 

6  china  plates 30 

3  mixing  bowls 30 

6  sauce   dishes 15 

6  cups  and  saucers 30 

1  coffee    pot 25 

1  teapot  10 

3  bread  pans 15 

6  quart  jars .30 

3  wooden  pails  with  covers.  .     .30 

6  dish   towels 48 

3  dish  cloths 15 

3  hand  towels 15 

1  broom 15 

1  dust  pan 05 

1  brush  .  .10 


1  scrubbing   brush $0.05 

1  scrubbing  pail 10 

1  Dover  beater 05 

1  pepper  shaker 05 

1  salt  shaker 05 

1  colander   10 

1  baking  dish .10 


bread  knife 25 

coffee  mill 25 

corkscrew    .  .10 


$15.50 

Packing  box  table 1.00 

Packing  box  cupboard 50 


$17.00 
Large  blue-flame  oil  stove . .   10.00 

$27.00 


MA(  nO.NALI)    INSTITUTE    RURAL    SCHOOL    EQUIPMENT 

Designed  by  Miss  Grace  Greenwood,  of  Macdonald  Institute,  Guelph, 
Canada.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  setting  up 
an  inexpensive  class-kitchen  equipment  to  illustrate  what  can  be  done 
in  rural  schools,  or  other  places  where  gas  stoves,  plumbing,  and  sepa- 
rate rooms  are  out  of  the  question.  An  equipment  of  trestle  tables, 
cupboards,  and  utensils  has  been  purchased  and  installed  in  one  of 
the  rooms  left  vacant  by  the  Manual  Training  department.  It  is 
suitable  for  individual  work  with  a  class  of  twelve  and  is  now  being 
tested  by  use  with  a  public  school  class.  Following  is  a  list  of  the 
equipment,  showing  the  exact  cost  of  each  item. 


Article.  Cost. 

12  bowls,  brown $0.85 

12  bread   tins .95 

12  teacups  and  saucers 1.25 

12  tin  measuring  cups 1.25 

12  egg  beaters 30 

12  forks 50 

12  case  knives 1.25 

12  paring  knives 1.25 

12  plates   85 

12  saucepans    1.68 

12  tablespoons 50 

24  teaspoons 40 

12  wooden  spoons 60 

12  stewpans    2.40 


Article.  Cost. 

1 2  strainers $0.65 

2  trays    80 

1  bowl,  yellow 25 

1  bowl,   yellow 35 

1  bowl,   yellow .45 

3  scissors   1.50 

5  trestle  tables 20.55 

6  frying   pans 90 

3  tea  strainers 15 

3  match-box  stands 24 

i  emery  knife 20 

3  soap  dishes 25 

12  pepper  shakers 1.50 

12  salt  shakers..  1.50 


Manual? and  Household  Arts 


Article.  Cost. 

1  bell    $0.50 

4  lemon    reamers 40 

6  stoves,   kerosene 6.00 

12  plates,  dinner 1.25 

6  plates,  soup 60 

4  jugs 60 

1  jug 45 

1  butcher  knife $0.30 

1  French  knife 60 

2  spatulas 80 

6  teaspoons    10 

3  tablespoons 13 

4  brushes 20 

2  stove  mitts 50 

4  asbestos  mats 20 

1  corkscrew 25 

4  egg  beaters 60 

4  wash  basins 92 

3  draining  pans '  .69 

4  dishpans    2.00 

6  broilers  .  .48 


Article.  Cost. 

cake  tins $0.3.", 


4  graters  

3  strainers 

24  pattie  pans 

2  tin  dippers 

2  fiber  pails 

1  colander 

1  pail,  enamel 

1  pan,  enamel 

3  tea  kettles 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 


saucepan    30 

saucepan    25 

saucepan    23 

saucepan    30 

double  boiler 85 

1  kettle,  covered 60 

*1  stove    (to  burn   coal   or 

wood)    30.00 


Total $100.05 


*The  above  may  be  replaced  by  a  twenty-dollar  wood  stove  or  a  ten-dollar 
two-burner  coal  oil  stove. 

The  whole  equipment  is  attractive,  and  is  capable  of  modifications 
which  will  adapt  it  to  the  conditions  of  many  schools. 

EQUIPMENT    OF    SPEYEE    SCHOOL     (PRACTICE    SCHOOL    OF    TEACHERS'    COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY ) 

Cooking  table  with  drawers  for  18,  18  individual  stoves,  2  large 
stoves,  utensils,  and  dining-room  furniture  (sink  not  included). 
Equipped,  year  1902-3. 

Cooking  tables    $150.00 

Stoves   ( small )    13.50 

Stools   : 13.50 

Gas  range   17.50 

Coal  range 13.50 

Dining  room 25.00 


Refrigerator    

Linen  and  china  

Burners  and  tnbing,  etc. 

Utensils   

Incidentals    . 


Plumbing  connection   . 


10.00 
10.00 
5.00 
98.00 
10.00 

$366.00 
30.00 


$396.00 


Domestic    Science,    Olympia    High    School. 


Manual  Training  Benchwork,  Olympia,  Wash. 
(The  benches  made  by  the  boys  In  the  manual  training  classes.) 


Manual  Training  Exhibit. 


Manual  Training  Exhibit. 


Manual  Training  Exhibit. 


Manual    Arts   Exhibit. 


Art* 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


